Relationship between measures of adaptive functioning and community adjustment for adults with mental retardation.

Relationship between measures of adaptive functioning and community adjustment for adults with mental retardation. * The construct of adaptive functioning adaptive functioning,n the relative ability of a person to effectively interact with society on all levels and care for one's self; affected by one's willingness to practice skills and pursue opportunities for improvement on all levels. is relatively old; itscontemporary roots can be found in the early social competency researchand definitions of mental retardation mental retardation,below average level of intellectual functioning, usually defined by an IQ of below 70 to 75, combined with limitations in the skills necessary for daily living. (Doll, 1934, 1953; Kanner 1964;Scheerenberger, 1983). During the past two decades, however, adaptivefunctioning has been the object of considerable activity. This activityhas focused on a variety of theoretical and practical issues, such asthe definition of adaptive behavior Adaptive behavior is a type of behavior that is used to adapt to another type of behavior or situation. This is often characterized by a kind of behavior that allows an individual to substitute an unconstructive or disruptive behavior to something more constructive. (Clausen, 1972; Grossman, 1983;Leland, Shellhaas, Nihira, & Foster, 1967; Mercer mer��cer?n. Chiefly BritishA dealer in textiles, especially silks.[Middle English, from Old French mercier, trader, from merz, merchandise, from Latin merx , 1973, 1979;Reschly, 1982, 1985, 1987; Zigler, Balla, & Hodapp, 1984), theintegration of the adaptive behavior construct within broader models ofpersonal competence (Greenspan, 1979, 1981a, 1981b; McGrew &Bruininks, 1990), empirical investigations of the nature of the adaptivebehavior construct (Keith, Fehrmann, Harrison, & Pottebaum, 1987;Keith, Harrison, & Ehly, 1987; McGrew & Bruininks, 1989, 1990;McGrew, Ittenbach, Bruininks, & Hill, 1991), and the assessment ofadaptive behavior (Harrison, 1987; Health,1986; Holman & Bruininks,1985; Meyers, Nihira, & Zetlin, 1979). The American Association of Mental Retardation's Manual onTerminology and Classification (Grossman, 1973, 1977, 1983) provides adefinition of adaptive behavior, but there remains some disagreement onhow to operationally define and measure adaptive functioning. Despitesome remaining definitional and measurement issues, professionalsincreasingly are required to formally assess adaptive behavior,especially as it relates to criteria for classifying someone as anindividual with mental retardation and determining eligibility forservices. An important issue in the application of the adaptive behaviorconstruct is criterion-related validity. Extensive research hasinvestigated the relation between measures of adaptive behavior andmeasures of intelligence, academic achievement, physical developmentalabilities, and social skills (Harrison, 1987; Kamphaus, 1987; McGrew& Bruininks, 1990). A major problem, however, remains--lack ofevidence for sound predictive validity In psychometrics, predictive validity is the extent to which a scale predicts scores on some criterion measure.For example, the validity of a cognitive test for job performance is the correlation between test scores and, for example, supervisor performance ratings. related to major aspects ofadaptation in community environments (Kamphaus). Though adaptivebehavior has been found to correlate significantly with measures ofacademic achievement, the magnitude of the correlations suggests thatknowledge of performance on adaptive behavior scales adds little topredictive ability beyond what is already provided by measures ofintelligence. Perhaps a more important criterion for research and for educationaland human service providers would be the prediction of nonacademicfunctioning, such as performance in a variety of community settings. Inrecent reviews, Kamphaus (1987) and Harrison (1987) found that adaptivebehavior correlated cor��re��late?v. cor��re��lat��ed, cor��re��lat��ing, cor��re��latesv.tr.1. To put or bring into causal, complementary, parallel, or reciprocal relation.2. at moderate levels with a variety of nonacademiccriteria (e.g., workshop placement, hourly salary, group home residentperformance, and postschool adjustment ratings). However, this researchhas been limited to a handful of studies with a few adaptive behaviorscales, limited samples, and a limited range of outcomes. More recent research in community adjustment has focused onmultidimensional outcome measures developed within conceptual models ofcommunity adjustment (Bruininks, Thurlow, McGrew, & Lewis, 1990;Halpern, Nave nave(nāv), in general, all that part of a church that extends from the atrium to the altar and is intended exclusively for the laity. In a strictly architectural sense, however, the term indicates only the central aisle, excluding side aisles. , Close, & Nelson, 1986; Heal, 1985; McGrew, Bruininks,Thurlow, & Lewis, in press). In a sample of 257 adults with mild tomoderate retardation retardation:see mental retardation. , Halpern et al. (1986) used confirmatory factoryanalysis methods to validate a four-factor community adjustment modelthat included the dimensions of occupation, residential environment,social support/safety, and client satisfaction. In a sample of 239 youngadults with mild to severe retardation, McGrew, Bruininks, Thurlow andLewis (in press) used confirmatory factor analysis In statistics, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is a special form of factor analysis. It is used to assess the the number of factors and the loadings of variables. methods to test andcross-validate a four-dimensional model of community adjustment using 12separate measures. These investigators reported evidence in support of amodel that included the dimensions of social network/integration,recreation/leisure integration, community/economic integration, and needfor support services support servicesPsychology Non-health care-related ancillary services–eg, transportation, financial aid, support groups, homemaker services, respite services, and other services . The prevalent approach in assessing community adaptation is toassess single outcomes, such as employment status, without regard to theclustering of multiple measure into broader constructs (see Goldstein,1964; McCarver & Craig, 1974). Through the use of multivariatestatistical procedures, it is increasingly feasible to identify broadermeasures of adaptation. Research on the adaptive behavior of people withmental retardation has similarly been limited to single measures, oftenwithout assessment of maladaptive MaladaptiveUnsuitable or counterproductive; for example, maladaptive behavior is behavior that is inappropriate to a given situation.Mentioned in: Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy behaviors, thereby unduly restrictingthe overall measurement of adaptive skills (Bruininks, Thurlow, &Gilman, 1987). Studies have relied primarily on assessing relationsamong different dimensions of personal competence (e.g., intelligence,academic achievement, and adaptive behavior). These studies have usedlimited measures, without regard to actual measures of adaptation inhome, work, and community environments. Finally, few studies haveemployed multivariate statistical methods to enable the full explorationof relations among measures of adaptive behavior skills and otherconstructs. There is a pressing need for research to explore the relationbetween aspects of adaptive behavior and a broad array ofcommunity-based criterion measures. The purpose of this study was toexplore the relation between measures of adaptive and maladaptivebehavior and several previously validated, multidimensional communityadjustment measures. METHODSample The sample included young people who had exited secondary publicschool programs in a large midwestern metropolitan area and who wereclassified as having mild (n = 44), moderate (n = 91), or severe (n =104) degrees of mental retardation. During their high school grades, thestudents with mild disabilities were mainstreamed and were served inresource rooms for part of their school day. The students with moderateor severe disabilities were served primarily in separate specialeducation programs either outside their school district or in analternative school. The 239 subjects (126 male, 113 female) representeda 68% response rate from all possible subjects who had been out ofschool from 1 to 10 years and who were contacted for the study. Subjectswere contacted first by telephone, followed by a letter that confirmedtheir agreement to participate in the study and repeated information onthe scheduled time In rallying, the Scheduled Time of any crew is the time, calculated at the beginning of the event, that they should arrive at any given control. It is different from Due Time in that Due Time is dynamic, ie it can change throughout the event as competitors drop time; whereas of the interview. At the time of the follow-up contacts, the subjects were found tolive and work in a variety of settings. The most frequent daytimeactivities for the subjects were involvement in a day/work activitycenter (48.7%), competitive employment (27.3%), or a sheltered workshop(14.7%). The remaining subjects were either involved in no formalprogram outside of their home (5.9%), or were involved insupervise/supported employment (2.5%) or day care settings (0.8%). Thelargest number of subjects were either living with family members orrelatives (46.9%) or in a group residence (41.8%). The remainingsubjects were either living independently or with friends (6.7%); werein apartment training or a half-way house (3.4%); or were in aninstitution, hospital, or nursing home (1.3%). The mean chronologicalage chron��o��log��i��cal agen. Abbr. CAThe number of years a person has lived, used especially in psychometrics as a standard against which certain variables, such as behavior and intelligence, are measured. of the sample was 302.1 months (SD = 33.4 months), and the meanadaptive behavior age (as measured by the Inventory for Client andAgency Planning) was 122.4 months (SD = 88.7 months). Instrumentation Information from the Inventory for Client and Agency Planning(ICAP (1) (Internet Content Adaptation Protocol) A high-level protocol for requesting services from an Internet-based server. iCAP provides a common format for requesting services using standard HTTP messaging. ) (Bruininks, Hill, Weatherman, & Woodcock woodcock:see snipe. woodcockAny of five species (family Scolopacidae) of plump, sharp-billed migratory birds of damp, dense woodlands in North America, Europe, and Asia. , 1986) was gathereddirectly from the respondent In Equity practice, the party who answers a bill or other proceeding in equity. The party against whom an appeal or motion, an application for a court order, is instituted and who is required to answer in order to protect his or her interests. , who was either the former student or aninformed third party. The ICAP is a tool for managing informationrelated to planning and evaluating services for people withdisabilities, including information on diagnostic and health status,adaptive behavior, problem or maladaptive behaviors, projected serviceneeds, current service placement, support services, and social-leisureactivities. The adaptive behavior section contains 77 adaptive behavioritems that are also used in a more extensive test, the Scales ofIndependent Behavior (SIB sib:see clan. ) (Bruininks, Woodcock, Weatherman, & Hill,1984). The ICAP also includes standardized Problem Behavior scales. TheICAP was standardized on 1,764 subjects selected to be representative ofthe U.S. population (1980 census). Test-retest, internal consistency In statistics and research, internal consistency is a measure based on the correlations between different items on the same test (or the same subscale on a larger test). It measures whether several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce similar scores. ,and interrater reliabilities are generally in the .80s to .90s.Extensive validity studies (Bruininks, Woodcock, Hill, & Weatherman,1985; Bruininks et al., 1986) have indicated that the scalesdiscriminate dis��crim��i��nate?v. dis��crim��i��nat��ed, dis��crim��i��nat��ing, dis��crim��i��natesv.intr.1. a. well between samples of individuals with and withoutdisabilities, correlate in the .70s with other adaptive behavior scales,and correlate highly with age. The four ICAP adaptive behavior clusters were used in thisanalysis. The Social/Communication skills cluster measures socialinteraction and the ability to use and understand language. The PersonalLiving skills cluster measures an individual's effectiveness inmeeting the everyday demands of personal independence and autonomy(e.g., self-care, eating, dressing). The Community Living skills clusterassesses successful adjustment in the community (e.g., time, money, workskills, use of community). Finally, the Motor skills cluster assessesgross and fine motor skills. The ICAP Problem Behavior Scales use eight problem behavior scalesto represent three maladaptive clusters. The Internalized clustermeasures maladaptive behavior directed toward oneself, and theExternalized cluster measures maladaptive behavior directed towardothers or the environment. The Asocial a��so��cialadj.1. Avoiding or averse to the society of others; not sociable.2. Unable or unwilling to conform to normal standards of social behavior; antisocial. cluster measures maladaptivebehavior in social contexts. The adaptive behavior cluster scores werein the form of W scores, a special transformation of the Rasch abilityscales (Bruininks et al., 1985, 1986; Woodcock, 1978). The W scale is anequal-interval scale centered on a value of 500, which is theapproximate average performance of a beginning fifth-grade student. Themaladaptive clusters are based on a scale with a zero mean and astandard deviation of 10, which represents the variability typicallyobserved in a variety of clinical samples (Bruininks et al., 1985). A 142-question interview protocol was administered concurrently tothe same respondents In the context of marketing research, a representative sample drawn from a larger population of people from whom information is collected and used to develop or confirm marketing strategy. . This protocol was designed to gather informationconcerning the subject's current work, day program or otheractivities, past employment, job-search skills, education, day programparticipation, living arrangements, social networks, citizenresponsibilities, use of support programs, and social adjustment andskills (Bruininks, Lewis, & Thurlow, 1990; Thurlow, Bruininks, &Lange, 1989; Thurlow, Bruininks, Wolman, & Steffens, 1989). Throughthe use of exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, Bruininks,Thurlow, McGrew, and Lewis (1990) and McGrew, Bruininks, Thurlow, andLewis (in press) reduced the pool of 142 interview items and selectedICAP service information items to the 12 composite community adjustmentvariables presented in Table 1. In this table, the variables areorganized according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. the four community adjustment factors validatedin the McGrew, Bruininks, Thurlow, and Lewis (in press) confirmatoryfactor analysis study. [Tabular Data 1 Omitted] The four factors identified by McGrew, Bruininks, Thurlow, andLewis (in press) were as follows: * Social Network/Integration--theextent to which a person has developed an active social network. * Recreation/Leisure Integration--the extent to which a person is actively involved in formal and informal recreation and leisure activities both at home and in the community. * Community/EconomicIntegration--the extent to which a person is independent in the community in the areas of economics and income, daytime activities, and living arrangements. * Need for Support Services--the extent to which a person needs a wide variety of services to function without the community. RESULTS Canonical correlation procedures were used to explore the relationbetween the set of four adaptive and three maladaptive variables and thefour sets of community adjustment variables representing the dimensionsof social network/integration, recreation/leisure integration,community/economic integration, and need for support services. Canonicalcorrelation procedures, which examine the relation between two sets ofvariables when each set consists of at least two variables (Cooley &Lohnes, 1971; Thompson, 1984), were judged to be more appropriate thaneither the calculation of all pairwise correlations among measures ofadaptive/maladaptive behavior and community adjustment variables, or theexploration of the linear relations between the adaptive/maladaptivevariables and single community adjustment outcome variables throughmultiple regression. Prior research with this data set (Bruininks, Thurlow, McGrew,& Lewis, 1990; McGrew, Bruininks, Thurlow, & Lewis, in press)indicated that the 12 community adjustment variables are bestinterpreted to represent four factors and should thus be combined intomultidimensional criteria. In addition, factor analytic Adj. 1. factor analytic - of or relating to or the product of factor analysisfactor analytical research withthe same seven ICAP clusters in this and other studies has consistentlyfound the four adaptive clusters to form a single adaptive dimension andthe three maladaptive clusters to form a single maladaptive dimension(Bruininks, Thurlow, McGrew, & Lewis, 1988; McGrew & Bruininks,1987; McGrew et al., in press). Both empirical and conceptual evidencesuggest that canonical correlation procedures would best examine therelations between these sets of multivariate dimensions. The purpose of the current study was to determine whether anysignificant relation existed among adaptive/maladaptive behavior and thecommunity adjustment measures, and, if significant, to determine thedegree of this relation. The following information was obtained fromeach canonical analysis: (a) canonical correlations and relatedstatistics and (b) significant canonical variates and canonicalloadings. Within each of the four community adjustment dimensions, threeseparate canonical analyses were performed: 1. Adaptive and maladaptiveclusters with the respective community adjustment variables. 2. Adaptive behaviorclusters with the respective community adjustment variables. 3. Maladaptive behavior clusterswith the respective community adjustment variables. The .01 significancelevel was used to evaluate the significance of the canonical results. The results shown in Table 2 reveal a strong significant relationbetween the set of adaptive/maladaptive behavior variables and the setof community/economic integration variables. Canonical correlations of.74 were found between the set of community/economic integrationvariables and the sets of adaptive/maladaptive and adaptive behavior.The majority of the relation with the set of community/economicintegration variables appears to result primarily from the adaptivebehavior clusters. All adaptive behavior clusters loaded highly on thesignificant variate: the highest loading was for Community Living Skills(.98 and .99), and the lowest was Motor Skills (.72). [Tabular Data 2Omitted] The maladaptive behavior clusters appeared to add little to thecanonical correlation; but when they were used in isolation, this set ofproblem behavior measures displayed a significant relation (canonicalcorrelation = .44) with the rest of community/economic integrationvariables. Across the two relevant analyses, the three maladaptiveclusters displayed loadings at approximately the same level. The patternof loadings for the community/economic integration variables on thethree variates was similar to the pattern of factor loadings reported byMcGrew, Bruininks, Thurlow, and Lewis (in press) for theirCommunity/Economic Integration factor. There were higher loadings forthe variables reflecting degree of economic independence (EconomicIntegration, Earned Income) and independence in work and residentialliving arrangements (Day-time Activity and Living Arrangements). Thesefindings suggest that increasing levels of adaptive behavior areassociated with increasing degrees of community/economic independenceand integration. The relations between the sets of adaptive and maladaptive clustersand the set of need for support variables are summarized in Table 3. Allthree canonical variates were significant. Similar to the resultspresented for community/economic integration, the largest canonicalcorrelations were for the adaptive/maladaptive (.47) and adaptive only(.44) analyses. The adaptive behavior variables accounted for themajority of the relationship with the need for support variables. Again,the Personal Living Skills (.83, .90), Community Living Skills (.90,.98), and Social/Communications Skills (.84, .91) clusters loaded thehighest on the significant variates. The Motor Skills clustercontributed less (.62, .67) to the significant variates. [Tabular Data 3Omitted] In contrast to the findings shown in Table 2, the three ICAPmaladaptive behavior clusters loaded differentially on the two variatesin which they were included. In both cases, the Asocial Maladaptivecluster appeared to be most strongly related to the variate (.64, .92).When only the set of maladaptive behavior clusters were included in theanalyses, the Asocial (.92) and Internal (.83) maladaptive clusters weremost strongly associated with the variate, followed by the External(.67) maladaptive cluster. Because all variables were scaled so thathigher scores indicated higher functioning or better communityadjustment, this finding suggests that the need for community supportservices was less when the individual displayed lower levels of asocialand internally directed maladaptive behavior. Moreover, higher levels ofadaptive behavior appeared to be most strongly related with lower needsfor community support services. The relations between the sets of adaptive or maladaptive clustersand the social network/integration variables were all significant (Table4). Similar to the results presented for community/economic integrationand need for support, the largest canonical correlations were for theadaptive/maladaptive (.38) and adaptive-only (.30) analyses. Theadaptive behavior variables accounted for the majority of therelationship with the social network/integration variables. All fouradaptive behavior clusters and both social network/integration variablesloaded at or above .71 on the significant variate in the adaptive-onlyanalysis. This suggests that higher levels of adaptive behavior areassociated with a larger number and variety of social contacts. In thecase of the maladaptive only analyses, the loadings suggest that lessexternal (.53) and internal (.58) maladaptive behavior may be associatedwith a larger variety of friends (.87). [Tabular Data 4 Omitted] In the area of recreation/leisure integration (Table 5),significant canonical correlations were found in the adaptive behaviorclusters either alone (.27) or in combination with the maladaptivebehavior clusters (.30). No significant canonical variate was found withthe set of maladaptive behavior clusters. For the two significantvariates reported in Table 5, all adaptive behavior cluster loadingswere at or above .71, while the Recreation/Leisure-Social variableloaded the highest on the variates (.78 and .82), followed byRecreation/Leisure-Informal and Home (.44 and .32). These resultssuggest that higher levels of involvement in social and informalrecreation/leisure activities are associated with higher levels ofadaptive behavior. The variable that reflected organized activities inthe community (Recreation/Leisure-Formal and Community) displayednegative loadings (-.33 and -.32) on both variates. Although thenegative loading was unexpected, the relative pattern of theRecreation/Leisure integration variable loadings is similar to thefactor loadings reported by McGrew, Bruininks, Thurlow, and Lewis (inpress). These findings suggest that these three recreation and leisurevariables may not represent a homogenous homogenous - homogeneous dimension. Thus, it might bemore appropriate to not include them in the same set in futuremultivariate analyses. [Tabular Data 5 Omitted] DISCUSSION The results of this investigation indicate that measures ofadaptive and maladaptive behavior from the ICAP are significantlyrelated to measures of community adjustment for people with mild tosevere degrees of retardation. Through the use of canonical correlationsprocedures, the combined Personal Living Skills, Community LivingSkills, and Social/Communication Living Skills clusters, and, to alesser extent, the Motor Skills cluster, were highly related (canonicalcorrelation = .74) with concurrent measures of community/economicintegration. Although not as strong combination of four adaptivebehavior clusters was also significantly related (canonical correlation= .44) with measures reflecting an individual's need for communitysupport services. These findings support a strong association betweenthe ICAP adaptive behavior clusters and successful integration in thecommunity, as defined by economic independence, independence in daytimeactivities and living arrangements, and independence from communitysupport services. These findings suggest that the ICAP adaptive behaviorclusters can provide useful information for program planning, decisionmaking, and program evaluation Program evaluation is a formalized approach to studying and assessing projects, policies and program and determining if they 'work'. Program evaluation is used in government and the private sector and it's taught in numerous universities. for people with retardation. Canonical correlations between the four adaptive behavior clustersand measures of social network and recreation/leisure integration,although significant, were much lower (.30 and .27). This suggests that,by themselves, the adaptive behavior measures are not stronglyassociated with the activity levels of people with retardation in socialand recreation/leisure activities in the community. Many social andleisure-recreation activities for persons with mental retardation may behighly structured and supervised su��per��vise?tr.v. su��per��vised, su��per��vis��ing, su��per��vis��esTo have the charge and direction of; superintend.[Middle English *supervisen, from Medieval Latin , leaving little opportunity for theexpression of preferences or the application of abilities. Otherenvironmental or personal competence variables need to be considered incombination with adaptive behavior measures when formulating programplans or making decisions related to these two important areas ofcommunity adjustment. The correlation magnitudes do not support makingindividual predictions in these two areas. The presence of significantcanonical correlations, however, suggests that adaptive behaviormeasures should be included in research that seeks to understand howdifferent personal competence and environmental variables interact incontributing to the social and recreation/leisure integration of peoplewith mental retardation. The stronger relation of measures of adaptive behavior withcommunity independence (community/economic integration and need forsupport variables) than with measures of social and recreation/leisureintegration likely reflects an interaction between the level of adaptivefunctioning and environmental variables. The generation of income andmanagement of one's own finances, freedom from support services,and involvement in more independent employment settings most likelyrequire higher levels of adaptive functioning. A person will most likelynot be placed in or hired for a wage-earning job, or manage personalfinances without assistance, if certain prerequisite pre��req��ui��site?adj.Required or necessary as a prior condition: Competence is prerequisite to promotion.n. skills do not existor are not possible to develop. Successful community adjustment in theseareas is more likely related to the person's level of adaptivefunctioning. In contrast, many people in this sample lived in special residences(e.g., group homes) where group social and recreation/leisure activitiestypically are organized by the residence staff for all clients in theresidence (Bruininks, Lewis, & Thurlow, 1990; Thurlow, Bruininks,& Lange, 1989; Thurlow, Bruininks, Wolman, & Steffens, 1989).Thus, all residents of a group home may take a bus to a baseball game,accompanied by staff, requiring only a minimal level of personal choiceor adaptive functioning for an individual to participate. This emphasison a minimal level of functioning would attenuate To reduce the force or severity; to lessen a relationship or connection between two objects.In Criminal Procedure, the relationship between an illegal search and a confession may be sufficiently attenuated as to remove the confession from the protection afforded by the any correlationbetween measures of adaptive functioning and extent of involvement insocial and recreation/leisure activities. Since the social andrecreation/leisure measures used in this investigation only assessed thefrequency of involvement, and not the actual degree of success orquality of experience in these areas, people with varying degrees ofadaptive behavior may have similar frequency of involvement because oftheir participation in organized group activities. This could explainthe significantly lower canonical correlations found between adaptivebehavior and social and recreation/leisure integration in the currentstudy. With recreation-leisure programs providing greater personalchoice and integrated options, relationships may increase betweenmeasures of adaptive behavior and these aspects of community adjustmentin future studies. Maladaptive behavior was found to be significantly related tocommunity/economic integration (canonical correlation = .44), need forsupport services (.34), and social network integration (.23). Therelatively low to moderate level of these canonical correlations,together with the lack of a significant relation in therecreation/leisure area, suggests a weaker relation between maladaptivebehavior and community adjustment than is typically reported in theliterature. Prior research has suggested a link between problembehaviors and decreased opportunities for personal development andsocial or community integration (Bruininks, Hill, Morreau, 1988; Hill& Bruininks, 1981, 1984). In addition, socially inappropriatebehaviors are believed to be highly instrumental in the occurrences ofinstitutionalization InstitutionalizationThe gradual domination of financial markets by institutional investors, as opposed to individual investors. This process has occurred throughout the industrialized world. (Maney, Pace, & Morrison, 1964; Spencer, 1976),reinstitutionalization (Hill & Bruininks, 1984; Keyes, Boroskin,& Ross, 1973; Pagel & Whitling, 1978; Sutter, Mayeda, Call,Yanagi, & Yee, 1980), and lowered job status (McCarver & Craig,1974; Schalock, Harper, & Carver carver/car��ver/ (kahr��ver) a tool for producing anatomic form in artificial teeth and dental restorations. carver (carving instrument),n , 1981). The weaker association inthis study may result from the relatively narrow range of maladaptivebehavior demonstrated by the subjects and the limited range of socialand recreation-leisure measures of community adjustment. Descriptive statistics descriptive statisticssee statistics. (Bruininks, Thurlow, McGrew, & Lewis,1990) for the three ICAP maladaptive behavior clusters, which have anormative nor��ma��tive?adj.Of, relating to, or prescribing a norm or standard: normative grammar.nor mean of zero and standard deviation of 10, revealed that onlythe subgroup sub��group?n.1. A distinct group within a group; a subdivision of a group.2. A subordinate group.3. Mathematics A group that is a subset of a group.tr.v. with severe retardation (n = 104) displayed a level ofmaladaptive behavior that consistently approached a value close to 1standard deviation below the mean (Externalized = -7.1, internalized =-10.1, Asocial = -11.5). The means for the other subgroups ranged from-0.9 to 1.5 (mild) and -8.6 to -4.0 (moderate). The possibility existsthat the maladaptive behavior clusters may display a stronger relationwith community adjustment measures in samples displaying greater rangesof problem behaviors. The combined adaptive/maladaptive analysis with community/economicintegration (Table 2) and need for support services (Table 3) providessupport for integrating the constructs of adaptive and maladaptivebehavior. This type of integration is used to generate two measures inthe ICAP, the Service Score and the Service Level. The ICAP ServiceScore is composed of a weighted combination of adaptive behavior andmaladaptive behavior, and ranges from 0 to 100 with correspondingService Levels ranging from 1 to 9 (Bruininks et al., 1986). These twoservice scores are intended to provide an overall measure of aperson's need for care, support, supervision, or training. Theconstruction of the Service Score was based on stepwise regression In statistics, stepwise regression includes regression models in which the choice of predictive variables is carried out by an automatic procedure.[1][2][3] procedures with levels of residential and daytime placement as thecriteria (Bruininks et al., 1986). The relative magnitude of theadaptive (.62 to .98) and maladaptive (.39 to .64) canonical loadings inTables 2 and 3 provide independent validation See validate. validation - The stage in the software life-cycle at the end of the development process where software is evaluated to ensure that it complies with the requirements. of the differentiallyweighted ICAP Service Score and related Service Level. The ICAP ServiceScore and Service Levels would appear to be useful indexes for programplanning and decision making related to a person's potential forsuccessful community adjustment as defined by community/economicintegration and need for support services. The current investigation indicates that the ICAP measures ofadaptive behavior, and to a lesser extent maladaptive behavior, provideimportant information for planning and evaluating essential aspects ofcommunity integration and adjustment for people with mental retardation.The inclusion of measures of adaptive and maladaptive behavior inassessment batteries for individuals with retardation appears to beimportant, not only for eligibility decisions, but for programmatic pro��gram��mat��ic?adj.1. Of, relating to, or having a program.2. Following an overall plan or schedule: a step-by-step, programmatic approach to problem solving.3. decision making, planning, training, and support strategies. The results of this investigation provide support for thecriterion-related validity of the ICAP adaptive and maladaptive behaviorclusters as useful measures in understanding aspects of communityadaptation and participation. Several limitations, however, should beaddressed in future research. The simultaneous collection of theadaptive/maladaptive and community adjustment information limits thegeneralizability of the results to concurrent predictions. Replicationof this study in a longitudinal lon��gi��tu��di��naladj.Running in the direction of the long axis of the body or any of its parts. context, where adaptive/maladaptivemeasures are administered before people with retardation make importanttransitions (e.g., leaving public school special education programs,exiting residential facilities), and where the community adjustmentmeasures are collected 1 or more years later, would provide importantinformation on predicting later community adjustment. Replication ofthis study in both concurrent and longitudinal frameworks with othersamples, some with a greater range of maladaptive behavior, is needed. In any future replication or cross-validation attention should begiven to the use of additional or different measures of communityadjustment. For example, in the areas of recreation/leisure integrationand social network, measures that reflect the quality of success anindividual experiences in these areas would add important information tothe current measures of friendships and frequency of recreation/leisureinvolvement. The addition of measures of other community adjustmentdimensions such as quality of life and personal satisfaction also issuggested. Finally, measures of other personal competencies (e.g.,physical/developmental, conceptual/academic, and social skills),together with adaptive and maladaptive behavior, are needed in studiesand examine the relations between personal competencies and communityadjustment. If conducted in a longitudinal framework that uses models ofboth personal competence (Greenspan, 1979, 1981a, 1981b; McGrew &Bruininks, 1990) and community adjustment (Bruininks et al., 1988;Halpern et al., 1986; McGrew, Bruininks, Thurlow, & Lewis, inpress), such research could provide critical insights into understandingthe relative validity The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter.Please help [ improve the introduction] to meet Wikipedia's layout standards. You can discuss the issue on the talk page. of personal competence measures as they relate topredicting successful community adjustment. In addition, such researchcould provide important information to guide the development of trainingand intervention to improve the range of choices, integration, andquality of life for persons with mental retardation. REFERENCESBruininks, R., Hill, B. & Morreau, L. (1988). Prevalence andimplications of maladaptive behaviors and dual diagnosis in residentialand other service programs. In J. A. Stark, F. J. Menolascino, M. H.Albarelli, and V. C. Gray (Eds.), Mental retardation and mental health:Classification, diagnosis, treatment, services (pp 3-29). New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of :Springer-Verlag. Bruininks, R., HIll, B., Weatherman, R., &Woodcock, R. (1986). Inventory for Client and Agency Planning. Allen,TX: DLM See ILM. DLM - Distributed Lock Manager on distributed VMS systems. Teaching Resources. Bruininks, R., Lewis, D., & Thurlow, M.(1990). Outcomes and costs of special education programs for personswith mental retardation (Project Report Number 90-1). 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Social and occupationaladjustment. In H. A. Stevens & R. Heber (Eds.), Mental Retardation(pp. 214-254). Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press.Greenspan, S. (1979). Social intelligence in the retarded re��tard��ed?adj.1. Often Offensive Affected with mental retardation.2. Occurring or developing later than desired or expected; delayed. . In N. R.Ellis (Ed.), Handbook of mental deficiency, psychological theory andresearch (2nd ed., pp. 483-531). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Greenspan, S. (1981a). Defining childhood social competence: A proposedworking model. Advances in Special Education, 3, 1-39. Greenspan, S.(1981b). Social competence and handicapped individuals: Practicalimplications of a proposed model. Advances in Special Education, 3,41-82. Grossman, H. (1973). Manual on terminology and classification inmental retardation (Special Publication No. 2). Washington, DC: AmericanAssociation on Mental Deficiency. Grossman, H. (1977). 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American Journal of MentalDeficiency, 88, 380-387 Holman, J., & Bruininks, R. (1985).Assessing and training adaptive behaviors. In K. C. Lakin & R. H.Bruininks (Eds.), Strategies for achieving community integration ofdevelopmental disabled citizens (pp. 74-104). Baltimore: Paul H.Brookes. Kamphaus, R. (1987). Conceptual and psychometric psy��cho��met��rics?n. (used with a sing. verb)The branch of psychology that deals with the design, administration, and interpretation of quantitative tests for the measurement of psychological variables such as intelligence, aptitude, and issues in theassessment of adaptive behavior. Journal of Special Education, 21,27-35. Kanner, L. (1964). The history of the care and treatment ofmentally retarded. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas. Keith, T.,Fehrmann, P., Harrison, P., & Pottebaum, S. (1987). The relationbetween adaptive behavior and intelligence: Testing alternativeexplanations. Journal of School Psychology, 25, 31-43. Keith, T.,Harrison, P., & Ehly, S. (1987). Effects of adaptive behavior onachievement: Path analysis of a national sample. Professional SchoolPsychology, 2, 205-215. Keyes, V., Boroskin, A., & Ross, R. (1973).The revolving door in an MR hospital: A study of returns from leave.Mental Retardation, 11, 55-56. Leland, H., Shellhaas, M., Nihira, K.,& Foster, R. (1967). Adaptive behavior: A new dimension in thequalification of the mentally retarded. Mental Retardation Abstract, 4,359-387. Maney, A., Pace, R., & Morrison, D. (1964). A factoranalytic study of the need for institutionalization: Problems andpopulations for program development. American Journal of MentalDeficiency, 69, 372-384. McCarver, R., & Craig, E. (1974). Placementof the retarded in the community: Prognosis prognosis/prog��no��sis/ (prog-no��sis) a forecast of the probable course and outcome of a disorder.prognos��tic prog��no��sisn. pl. prog��no��ses1. and outcome. In N. R. Ellis(Ed.), International review of research in mental retardation (Vol. 7,pp. 145-207). Orlando, FL: Academic Press. McGrew, K., & Bruininks,R. (1987). An investigation of the relationship betweenadaptive/maladaptive behavior and intellectual/academic ability. In R.H. Bruininks & K. S. McGrew (Eds.), Exploring the structure ofadaptive behavior (Report No. 87-1, pp. 57-90). Minneapolis: Universityof Minnesota, Department of Educational Psychology. McGrew, K. &Bruininks, R. (1989). The factor structure of adaptive behavior. SchoolPsychology Review, 18, 64-81. McGrew, K., & Bruininks, R. (1990).Defining adaptive and maladaptive behavior within a model of personalcompetence. School Psychology Review, 19, 53-73. McGrew, K., Bruininks,R., Thurlow, M., & Lewis, D. (in press). An empirical analysis ofmultidimensional measures of community adjustment for young adults withretardation. American Journal on Mental Retardation. McGrew, K.,Ittenbach, R., Bruininks, R., & Hill, B. (1991). Factor structure ofmaladaptive behavior across the lifespan of persons with mentalretardation. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 12, 181-199.Mercer, J. (1973). Labeling the mentally retarded. Berkeley, CA:University of California Press "UC Press" redirects here, but this is also an abbreviation for University of Chicago PressUniversity of California Press, also known as UC Press, is a publishing house associated with the University of California that engages in academic publishing. . Mercer, J. (1979). System ofmulticultural pluralistic plu��ral��is��tic?adj.1. Of or relating to social or philosophical pluralism.2. Having multiple aspects or parts: "the idea that intelligence is a pluralistic quality that ... assessment technical manual. New York:Psychological Corporation. Meyers, C, Nihira, K., & Zetlin, A.(1979). The measurement of adaptive behavior. In N. R. Ellis (Ed.),Handbook of mental deficiency: Psychological theory and research (2nded., pp. 431-481). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Pagel, S., &Whitling, C. (1978). Readmissions to a state hospital for mentallyretarded persons: Reasons for community placement failure. MentalRetardation, 16, 164-166. Reschly, D. (1982). Assessing mild mentalretardation: The influence of adaptive behavior, sociocultural statusand prospects for nonbiased assessment. In C. R. Reynolds & T. B.Gutkin (Eds.), The handbook of school psychology (pp. 209-242). NewYork: Wiley Interscience. Reschly, D. (1985). Best practices: Adaptivebehavior. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes Grimes is a surname, that is believed to be of a Scandinavian decent and may refer to Aoibhinn Grimes Ashley Grimes Barbara Grimes, a Chicago murder victim Burleigh Grimes (1893–1985), US baseball player Camryn Grimes Charles Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in schoolpsychology (pp. 353-368). Kent, OH; National Association of SchoolPsychologists. Reschly, D. (1987). Adaptive behavior in classificationand programming with students who are handicapped. St. Paul St. Paulas a missionary he fearlessly confronts the “perils of waters, of robbers, in the city, in the wilderness.” [N.T.: II Cor. 11:26]See : Bravery : MinnesotaDepartment of Education. Schalock, R., Harper, R., & Carver, G.(1981). Independent living placement. Five years later. American Journalof Mental Deficiency, 86, 170-177. Scheerenberger, R. (1983). A historyof mental retardation. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes. Spencer, D. (1976).New long-stay patients in a hospital for mental handicap mental handicapNounany intellectual disability resulting from injury to or abnormal development of the brainmentally handicapped adj . BritishJournal of Psychiatry psychiatry(səkī`ətrē, sī–), branch of medicine that concerns the diagnosis and treatment of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders, including major depression, schizophrenia, and anxiety. , 128, 467-470. Sutter, P., Mayeda, T., Call, T.,Yanagi, G., & Yee, S. (1980). Comparison of successful andunsucessful community placed mentally retarded persons. American Journalof Mental Deficiency, 85, 262-267. Thompson, B. (1984). Canonicalcorrelation analysis: Uses and interpretation. Sage University Paperseries on Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences, Series No.07-001. Beverly Hills Beverly Hills,city (1990 pop. 31,971), Los Angeles co., S Calif., completely surrounded by the city of Los Angeles; inc. 1914. The largely residential city is home to many motion-picture and television personalities. , CA: Sage. Thurlow, M., Bruininks, R., &Lange, C. (1989). Assessing post-school outcomes for students withmoderate to severe mental retardation (Project Report No. 89-1).Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, Department of EducationalPsychology. Thurlow, M., Bruininks, R., Wolman, C., & Steffens, K.(1989). Occupational and social status of persons with moderate, severe,and profound mental retardation after leaving school (Project Report No.89-3). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, Institute on CommunityIntegration. Woodcock, R. (1978). Development and standardization of theWoodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery. Allen, TX: DLM TeachingResources. Zigler, E., Balla, D., & Hodapp, R. (1984). On thedefinition and classification of mental retardation. American Journal ofMental Deficiency, 89, 215-230. KEVIN S. MCGREW (CEC (Central Electronic Complex) The set of hardware that defines a mainframe, which includes the CPU(s), memory, channels, controllers and power supplies included in the box. Some CECs, such as IBM's Multiprise 2000 and 3000, include data storage devices as well. MN Federation) isan Assistant Professor in the Department of Applied Psychology at St.Cloud State University in St. Cloud, Minnesota St. Cloud (IPA: /ˌseɪntˈklaʊd/) is a city in the U.S. state of Minnesota and the major population center in the state's central region. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 59,107. . ROBERT H. BRUININKS (CECMN Federation) is the Dean of the College of Education at the Universityof Minnesota, Minneapolis. MARTHA L. THURLOW (CEC MN Federation) is theAssistant to the Director at the Institute on Community Integration andthe Research and Training Center on Community Living, both theUniversity of Minnesota, Minneapolis.