Neolithic Landscapes: Neolithic Studies Group Seminar Papers, vol 2.

Neolithic Landscapes: Neolithic Studies Group Seminar Papers, vol 2. PETER TOPPING (ed.). (Oxbow monograph 86.) x+187 pages, 38 figures, 7tables. 1997. Oxford: Oxbow; 1-900-188-41-4 paperback [pounds]20.It is a sign of the intellectual health of a specialist study groupthat its deliberations can generate collections of papers of generalinterest. That this is the third volume to emerge from the meetings ofthe Neolithic Studies Group is a good thing in itself. This time aroundit is the topical issue of landscape which is addressed, although withthe added complication of attempting to focus on the domestic as opposedto ceremonial aspects of Neolithic life. Whether the two can actually bedisentangled to this extent is an arguable point, but the editor'sexpressed desire to move beyond the narrow functionalism functionalism, in art and architecturefunctionalism,in art and architecture, an aesthetic doctrine developed in the early 20th cent. out of Louis Henry Sullivan's aphorism that form ever follows function. which hascharacterized much of the study of Neolithic settlement and subsistenceis an admirable one. The volume proceeds from a series of thematicchapters to a number of regional studies, ending with comparativeaccounts of continental evidence. Tim Darvill sets the scene with adiscussion of the various ways in which landscape has been approached byarchaeologists, concluding that a landscape is a context within whichhuman action is generated, rather than an object to be studied fromwithout. As much as a set of topographic features, a landscape involvesconceptual schemes through which people apprehend their immediate world.In a case-study of the later Neolithic of the Stonehenge area, Darvillsuggests that the imposition of a cosmological scheme onto the land wasresponsible for the recognizable patterning of the archaeologicalevidence. What might perhaps be added to Darvill's account is aconsideration of how such a scheme might have been lived through andenacted in everyday practice.The two following papers serve to demonstrate the malleability of theavailable evidence for Neolithic landscape-use. Both have something toadd to current debate, but they are able to accommodate diametrically di��a��met��ri��cal? also di��a��met��ricadj.1. Of, relating to, or along a diameter.2. Exactly opposite; contrary.di opposed viewpoints to similar material. Pointing to recent scepticismover the model of sedentary mixed farming in the temperate Neolithic,Alasdair Whittle Alasdair Whittle is Professor of Archaeology at Cardiff University, specialising in the Neolithic period.His publications include Europe in the Neolithic: the creation of new worlds and Sacred Mound, Holy Ring. argues against a simple division between sedentism andmobility. Noting that discussions of relative mobility have been moresophisticated in hunter-gatherer studies than in later prehistory prehistory,period of human evolution before writing was invented and records kept. The term was coined by Daniel Wilson in 1851. It is followed by protohistory, the period for which we have some records but must still rely largely on archaeological evidence to , hedraws out some of the possibilities for different regimes of embedded,tethered, logistical and circulating mobility. Significantly, hepresents ethnographic evidence that neither livestock, nor cultivation,nor the building of substantial dwelling structures need necessitatefull-time sedentism. In contrast, Gabriel Cooney mounts a rear-guardaction on behalf of the sedentary farming Neolithic. I find the argumentno more convincing the second time around, and it is underlain un��der��lain?v.Past participle of underlie. here by awhiff of nationalism, presenting 'the Irish evidence' as adistinct entity defined by modern political boundaries. As Martyn Berberpoints out in a later paper, the limited evidence for Neolithic economicpractices in Britain and Ireland has meant that what has been found inone location is often taken as characteristic of all, resulting in ahomogenized and hybrid picture. So, while Cooney is able to point to aseries of large timber buildings with rich assemblages of carbonizedgrain, it is an open question whether one sees these as characteristicfarmsteads (of which there must at one time have been many more), orwhether they are a specialized type of site, connected with storage,redistribution or conspicuous consumption conspicuous consumptionn.The acquisition and display of expensive items to attract attention to one's wealth or to suggest that one is wealthy.Noun 1. . Pointing to the specificcharacter of the Irish Neolithic, Cooney emphasizes the enduringsignificance of place. Yet an attachment to place need not be anexclusive prerogative of sedentary communities. The pathways followed bymobile groups lead between significant places, of which Ayers Rock ismerely the most obvious example. However, Cooney's strong suit isan emphasis on regional variability. As he says, we should not expectthe same subsistence practices and patterns of residence to haveprevailed throughout Neolithic Britain and Ireland. Having said this, itmay have been precisely the belief that the Neolithic was underlain by auniform economic system which retarded any concern with geographicalvariation any variation of a species which is dependent on climate or other geographical conditions.See also: Geographic .The potential complexity of economic activities is underlined byJenny Moore's paper on the use of cyclical burning to maintain openwoodland, while Mark Patton attempts to integrate monuments and tracesof domestic occupation in his study of the Channel Islands. Pattonrecognizes that a landscape approach provides a framework for bringingtogether different aspects of the evidence, although like Darvill'schapter his account of Neolithic Jersey as divided between a sacredupland and a secular coastal lowland is a little formal andstructuralist in tenor. Miles Russell demonstrates that the wealth ofexisting evidence for Neolithic Sussex will sustain new interpretations,while Barber faces the opposite problem of the paucity of sites andfinds in Kent. As he argues, if our understanding of the period has beenconstructed in other areas with a richer record, a series ofexpectations are likely to be imposed upon less-studied regions. DaveField, Nigel Brown Nigel Brown (born 1949 in Invercargill) is a New Zealand painter whose work is mainly about the history of New Zealand and its natives.In the 1970s, he was inspired by expressionism and inf luenced by painter Colin McCahon. and Gill Hey provide chapters based upon recent fieldprojects on flint mines, southern Essex and the Upper Thamesrespectively. All present rich new material, and Hey's account ofYarnton in particular shows how an investigation framed at the landscapelevel can produce stunning results.Finally, Keri Brown and John Chapman discuss settlement in thelandscapes of the Tavoliere and the Great Hungarian Basin. Brown'sinformation on hundreds of enclosed Neolithic settlements is remarkable,but her story of stress caused by soil exhaustion and decreasingrainfall being solved by mass migration is a little one-dimensional.Chapman's is a weighty and densely argued contribution, whichsuggests that, rather than being just another kind of artefact See artifact. orcultural marker, tell mounds are the outcome of a long-term process ofbecoming. This process was underwritten by a decision on the part of acommunity to stay in one place, a nucleation nu��cle��a��tionn.1. The beginning of chemical or physical changes at discrete points in a system, such as the formation of crystals in a liquid.2. The formation of cell nuclei. of households insubstantial houses, social mechanisms to avoid fissioning, and a changedattitude to burnt daub, which became physical evidence of ancestraldwellings. One questionable element in the argument is the notion of'vertical competition', whereby larger tells might have beenawarded greater esteem or sanctity. Given that tell-formation would havetaken many generations, it is difficult to imagine authoritative peoplestriving to increase the height of their tell.JULIAN THOMAS Department of Archaeology University of Southampton In the most recent RAE assessment (2001), it has the only engineering faculty in the country to receive the highest rating (5*) across all disciplines.[3] According to The Times Higher Education Supplement

Neolithic houses in Ireland: a broader perspective. (Special section).

Neolithic houses in Ireland: a broader perspective. (Special section). Key-words: houses, Neolithic, settlement, domestic Introduction Over 90 structures have been identified as probable houses datingto the Neolithic period Neolithic periodor New Stone Age.The term neolithic is used, especially in archaeology and anthropology, to designate a stage of cultural evolution or technological development characterized by the use of stone tools, the existence of in Ireland (Grogan 1996; Cooney 1999; FIGURE 1;TABLES 1-3). While there is a considerable variation in size and formtwo principal types are discernible, the large rectangular buildings ofthe Early Neolithic and circular or oval structures that have a muchwider chronological span. In the past some of these have been readilyaccepted as houses while other, generally more ephemeral Temporary. Fleeting. Transitory. , structureshave occasionally been classified as having more temporary or specialistfunctions. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] A detailed assessment of the houses has been published recently(Grogan 1996) and the basic evidence has not altered in a major waysince then. The aim of this paper is to discuss the general structuralfeatures of these buildings, to attempt an assessment of their date andfunction and to offer a glimpse of the broader settlement landscape inwhich they were constructed. Despite the large array of evidence westill need to be cautious in our interpretation. Targeted research onthe nature of the Neolithic landscape, the diachronic di��a��chron��icadj.Of or concerned with phenomena as they change through time. features ofNeolithic settlement patterns, and the social context of domesticactivity (e.g. Bergh 1995; 2000; Cooney 1987; 2000; Cooney & Grogan1999; Jones 1998; Grogan 1989) will provide a much more effective mediumfor analysis than the study of individual buildings. The growing body ofhabitation HABITATION, civil law. It was the right of a person to live in the house of another without prejudice to the property. 2. It differed from a usufruct in this, that the usufructuary might have applied the house to any purpose, as, a store or manufactory; whereas evidence, resulting principally from large-scale ruralconstruction programmes, such as roads and pipelines, is indicating agreater diversity and distribution in Neolithic settlement. Rectangular structures The list of large rectangular Irish Neolithic houses continues togrow and over 40 of these have now been excavated (FIGURE 1, TABLE 1).These include older discoveries, such as Lough Gur Lough Gur is a lake in County Limerick, Ireland near the town of Bruff. The lake forms a horseshoe shape at the base of Knockadoon Hill and some rugged elevated countryside. It is one of Ireland's most important archaeological sites. , Co. Limerick Limerick, city, Republic of IrelandLimerick,city (1991 pop. 56,083), seat of Co. Limerick, SW Republic of Ireland, at the head of the Shannon estuary. The city has a port with two docks. (3+houses, O Riordain 1954; Grogan & Eogan 1987), Ballyglass, Co. Mayo(O Nuallain 1972), Ballynagilly, Co. Tyrone (ApSimon 1976), Knowth (5,Eogan 1984; Eogan & Roche 1997; Eogan & Roche 1998) and Newtown(Gowen & Halpin 1992), Co. Meath, Tankardstown South, Co. Limerick(2, Gowen 1988; Gowen & Tarbett 1988), and Pepperhill, Co. Cork(Gowen 1988). More recent discoveries include those at Corbally, SilliotHill, Co. Kildare (3, Purcell 1998; 1999), other houses nearby in thesame townland A townland is a small geographical unit of land used in Ireland and Scotland, and believed to be of Gaelic origin. EtymologyThe English term townland is derived from the Old English word 'tun', in turn originating from the Old Norse word t��n excavated by Red Tobin, Ballygalley (2, Simpson 1996;Simpson et al. 1990; 1994) and Ballyharry 1 (2, Crothers 1996), Co.Antrim, Cloghers, Tralee, Co. Kerry (Dunne & Kiely 1999; Kiely1999), Enagh (McSparron 1999; 2001) and Thornhill (5?, Logue 2001; Anon.2000), Co. Derry, Inch, Downpatrick, Co. Down (McManus 1999), DrummennyLower, Co. Donegal (Dunne 2001), Platin, Co. Meath (Declan Moore;Corlett 2001), and Coolfore (O Drisceoil 2000), Rathmullan (EmmetStafford) and Richardstown, Co. Louth (Byrnes 1999). Although themajority are rectangular some are almost square (e.g. Tankardstown 1,Coolfore and Corbally 3) and two sites, Ballygalley 1 and Inch, haveapsidal entrance compartments. While substantial slot trenches thatsupported plank walls define most of the houses, a few structures, suchas Inch, Coolfore and Pepperhill appear to have been built of postuprights supporting lighter wall cladding The plastic or glass sheath that is fused to and surrounds the core of an optical fiber. The cladding's mirror-like coating keeps the light waves reflected inside the core. The cladding is covered with a protective outer jacket. See fiber optics glossary. . Some of the buildings have a single room or compartment and thesetend to be the shorter examples with a length to width ratio of lessthan 1.6:1. Good examples include Ballynagilly, Tankardstown 1 andCorbally 1. Another group have two or three compartments. In theseinstances one compartment is usually considerably larger than theother(s) and this equates in size with many of the single roomstructures. The Cloghers structure, however, has three compartments ofroughly equal size. There are some exceptionally large houses, such asCloghers, Tankardstown 2 and Ballyharry 1 (phase 1). These havelength:width ratios of up to and over 2:1. The Tankardstown building hasa central compartment of over 58 sq. m. These buildings are exceptionaland most of the large compartments are c. 26-35 sq. m. In the compartmentalized com��part��men��tal��ize?tr.v. com��part��men��tal��ized, com��part��men��tal��iz��ing, com��part��men��tal��iz��esTo separate into distinct parts, categories, or compartments: "You learn . . . structures the other rooms tend to berelatively small (c. 9-15 sq. m). It has been suggested (Grogan 1980;1996) that these had ancillary functions, for storage or perhaps foranimal shelter "Dog Pound" redirects here. For the rap group, see Tha Dogg Pound.An animal shelter is a facility that houses homeless, lost or abandoned animals; primarily a large variety of dogs and cats. . The parallel arrays of postholes in the entrancecompartment at Ballyglass 1 could indicate a split level at this end ofthe structure, possibly for storing grain or fodder. Some of the largerhouses, such as Ballyglass 1 and Ballygalley 1, appear to have hadlighter, possibly moveable, screens in place of part of the moresubstantial walls. It is also possible that some of these compartmentswere not completely enclosed. At Newtown, for example, there is no slottrench across the east gable gableTriangular section formed by a roof with two slopes, extending from the eaves to the ridge where the two slopes meet. It may be miniaturized over a dormer window or entranceway. end, suggesting it could have been used asa sheltered work area open at one end to provide adequate light. While the houses discussed so far are all rectangular there is someevidence for circular houses in the early Neolithic. At Lough Gur L thefirst phase produced evidence for three circular or oval structures(Grogan & Eogan 1987: figure 35). The associated pottery isstylistically the earliest Neolithic assemblage assemblage:see collage. assemblageThree-dimensional construction made from household materials such as rope and newspapers or from any found materials. on the peninsularepresented by some simple `Dunmurry' type vessels as well as thoseof the more developed `Lyles Hill/Knockadoon' type (Grogan &Eogan 1987: figures 40, 41). It is possible that this site indicatessome architectural as well as ceramic changes although Lough Gur alsohas rectangular structures associated with pottery of `LylesHill/Knockadoon' type as well as with Middle Neolithic decoratedwares. Function It has generally been assumed that these structures had a domesticfunction (e.g. Cooney 2000: 52-70; Cooney & Grogan 1994; Grogan1996; Waddell 1998) and formed the residential focus for the`family' or other basic social units. They can be broadlyparalleled by the evidence from some British sites (Darvill 1996;Topping 1996). An attempt has been made to quantify the number ofoccupants that each house might have accommodated based on a roughallocation of 4 sq. m per person for sleeping room (TABLE 1). This isoffered simply as a general hypothesis but, taking the overall area forsingle compartment houses and the largest unit for multi-compartments,most of the houses could have been used comfortably by between 5 and 12individuals. A few could have provided sleeping quarters for many more,although this would necessitate ne��ces��si��tate?tr.v. ne��ces��si��tat��ed, ne��ces��si��tat��ing, ne��ces��si��tates1. To make necessary or unavoidable.2. To require or compel. using the entire floor area. Few of the houses had surviving floors (Lough Gur A being a rareexception) and we can only speculate as to the precise activities thattook place within them. It is probable that they acted primarily assleeping quarters, but were also used for the storage of tools, grain,fodder and personal belongings. As noted above they may have been usedon occasion to shelter animals. We might expect that social gatheringstook place in the evenings, probably involving occasional guests orvisitors as well as the constant inhabitants :This article is about the video game. For Inhabitants of housing, see Residency Inhabitants is an independently developed commercial puzzle game created by S+F Software. DetailsThe game is based loosely on the concepts from SameGame. . Cooking may also haveoccurred within the structures. The size and general layout of thebuildings, the similarity to domestic buildings of many other areas inEurope (including Bandkeramik houses, see below), the basic, and oftenrestricted, nature of the associated artefact See artifact. and faunal assemblages,the close association of two or more structures at several sites, aswell as the absence of any special material suggesting non-domesticactivity, all indicate that these structures acted primarily as houses.Most of the structures have only small amounts of associated material.The principle finds are of shouldered early Neolithic bowls but somelithic lith��ic?1?adj.Consisting of or relating to stone or rock.Adj. 1. lithic - of or containing lithium2. lithic - relating to or composed of stone; "lithic sandstone" material, stone axes or fragments, and small quantities of animalbones come from many sites. A few houses, including sites at Lough Gurand Corbally, have produced flat, sub-rectangular serpentine serpentine(sûr`pəntēn, –tīn), hydrous silicate of magnesium. It occurs in crystalline form only as a pseudomorph having the form of some other mineral and is generally found in the form of chrysotile (silky fibers) and beads. Somesites in the northeast of the country, such as Ballyharry andBallygalley, have produced very large assemblages of pottery and flint.In general it appears that the occupation debris represents small-scaleactivity such as might be expected from a domestic context. Nevertheless, it is correct to see the houses as exceptional. Theyare considerably larger and structurally more massive than the housesthat succeed them in the Middle and Late Neolithic (see below), orindeed the very similar circular houses of the Bronze Age Bronze Age,period in the development of technology when metals were first used regularly in the manufacture of tools and weapons. Pure copper and bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, were used indiscriminately at first; this early period is sometimes called the (Doody 2000).It is probable that they required co-operative labour for construction,and they were probably imbued with important status and ritualsymbolism, but indicating the intertwined nature of secular and ritualaspects of life in the Neolithic, rather than separate ritual places(Cooney 2000: 54-62). This seems to emphasize that the houses were thedomestic equivalent of the contemporary megalithic meg��a��lith?n.A very large stone used in various prehistoric architectures or monumental styles, notably in western Europe during the second millennium b.c. tombs. They may havebeen used on occasion for the social gatherings of several families (seeCross 2001) while functioning primarily as dwellings for`individual' families. A perceptual association between house andtomb is reflected by the Ballyglass 1 evidence, where the large houseseems to have been demolished in order to reuse the location for theconstruction of a central court tomb court tombn.A Neolithic tomb found chiefly in the British Isles consisting of a chamber tomb adjoined by an open space marked off by large standing stones. (O Nuallain 1972). Broadlycontemporary occupation evidence occurs beneath several megalithic tombsincluding Ballyglass 2, Ballybriest (`Carnanbane', Evans 1939), Co.Derry, Ballintoy (Mogey 1941), Ballymarlagh (Davies 1949) and Dun Ruadh(Davies 1936), Co. Antrim. Date The radiocarbon evidence and that of the associated pottery placethe construction and use of these structures in the Early Neolithic, c.3900-3400 cal BC. The pottery is of a well-dated form, shouldered,round-bottomed vessels referred to generally as Early `WesternNeolithic'. This pottery comes from the earliest use phase of anumber of court and portal tombs. From the available evidence it appearsthat these large rectangular houses were current throughout the period;several houses, including those at Ballyharry, Ballygalley and Circle L,Lough Gur, produced the earliest form of Western pottery (generallyreferred to as `Dunmurry' type), while others including the Knowth1 house, and those at Tankardstown, have a more developed form (`LylesHill/Knockadoon') with more pronounced rims and more sharplydefined shoulders. Fixed abodes? The evidence of the houses has been accepted by Irisharchaeologists, at least, as representing an important focus ofpermanent settlement patterns (Cooney 2000; Cooney & Grogan 1994;Waddell 1998). Even for the larger buildings, those that clearlyrepresent the remains of houses, how permanent was permanent? Even themost substantial examples may have had life-spans as short as 15-25years, something akin to a single early prehistoric generation, whileslighter houses may have lasted less than 10 years. Where apparentlyisolated houses have been identified these could represent relativelyshort-term occupation by a single residential group or family. However,these sites, such as Newtown or Pepperhill, may be exceptional and widerexploration in the area around them, as exemplified by the post-pipelineexcavations at Tankardstown (Gowen & Tarbett 1988), could revealmore extensive occupation evidence. Several sites have produced two or more houses. These include veryclose-knit groups at Corbally and Coolfore, more dispersedagglomerations as at Knowth, Lough Gur, Tankardstown, Ballygalley andBallyharry, and at least partly enclosed complexes at Knowth, Donegoreand Thornhill. However, do these groups of houses indicate singlefamilies in long-term residence, or groups of families in short-termpatterns? The general absence of stratigraphic stra��tig��ra��phy?n.The study of rock strata, especially the distribution, deposition, and age of sedimentary rocks.strat evidence makes thisdifficult to determine, but the complex structural history of Ballyharry1, for example, indicates several phases of rebuilding andrefurbishment re��fur��bish?tr.v. re��fur��bished, re��fur��bish��ing, re��fur��bish��esTo make clean, bright, or fresh again; renovate.re��fur . There are some strong indications from Lough Gur thatsuggest closely spaced residential patterns were part of the overallpicture. The replacement of the site B house by a second rectangularstructure, the proximity of houses at Circle L, the number of housesites on Knockadoon with comparable early (`Lyles Hill/Knockadoon') pottery (K1, K2, C1-C3 +, D1, D2, A, B1, B2), and thespatial arrangement Noun 1. spatial arrangement - the property possessed by an array of things that have space between themspacingplacement, arrangement - the spatial property of the way in which something is placed; "the arrangement of the furniture"; "the placement of the of the houses on the peninsula, all indicate thatthere was a stable population of several families (O Riordain 1954;Grogan & Eogan 1987; Cooney & Grogan 1994; Grogan 1996). Withinthis settlement each appears to have its own residential focus, eachsite influenced by the local topography and a general sense of personalspace. Several sites in the Boyne Valley, Co. Meath, have producedoccupation evidence (FIGURE 2). At Knowth there are five phases ofNeolithic settlement with two belonging to the Early (Western) Neolithic(Eogan & Roche 1997: figure 1, 5-50; Eogan & Roche 1998). In theearliest phase, dating to c. 3900-3700 cal BC, activity occurred,discontinuously, over an area of at least 8000 sq. m on the central andnortheastern side of the hill summit. This was represented by awell-defined ground surface and an associated layer of occupation soilthat produced a large assemblage of pottery. Parts of the foundations ofat least four rectangular houses have been identified. The bestpreserved of these was close to the summit beneath the passage of thewestern tomb under the large passage tomb mound (TABLE 1, Knowth 5;Eogan & Roche 1998). Another well-defined house occurred to thenortheast in Zone A (Knowth 2, although it possible that more than onestructure is represented here) and the remains of the mid section of onehouse, and the possible entrance area of another, occurred in Zone B(Knowth 3, 4). Subsequently, the domestic focus shifted to the westernside of the summit where settlement evidence consisting of a largerectangular building (Knowth 1), a smaller structure, an extensivepebbled `yard' and separate flint-working areas, and portions oftwo concentric Coming from the center, or circles within circles. For example, tracks on a hard disk are concentric. Tracks on optical media are concentric or spiral shaped (in a coil) depending on the type. palisade trenches (Eogan 1984). [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] At Thornhill a series of palisade enclosures indicate an area of upto 7500 sq. m was occupied in the Early Neolithic (Logue 2001; Anon.2000). Several structures, including apparently rectangular and circularexamples, as well as a wide array of features and other material, havebeen identified and there seem to be several phases of occupationrepresented. These sites indicate that extensive settlements occurred as part ofthe overall domestic organization. At Lough Gur and Knowth there are atleast two phases of occupation dating to the Early Neolithic. Takentogether with the existence of more than one house at other early siteslike Ballygalley, Ballyharry, Ballyglass, Corbally and Tankardstown, theweight of the evidence suggests that agglomeration ag��glom��er��a��tion?n.1. The act or process of gathering into a mass.2. A confused or jumbled mass: and longevity are afeature of Irish Early Neolithic settlement patterns. Many sites have produced domestic activity but lack structuralevidence. Amongst these are large complexes such as Dalkey Island Coordinates: Dalkey Island (Deilginis in Irish, meaning "thorny island") is situated about 10 miles south of Dublin, near the village of Dalkey, two miles south (Liversage 1968) and Feltrim Hill (Hartnett & Eogan 1964), Co.Dublin, Lyles Hill (Evans 1953) and Donegore (Mallory & Hartwell1984), Co. Antrim. Smaller sites include occupation evidence beneath twosatellite tombs (site L and Z) at Newgrange, Co. Meath (O'Kelly etal. 1978). While large rectangular houses are a feature of the earlierpart of the Neolithic, it is evident that other structural forms alsooccur occasionally, for example at Lough Gur I, Ballyglass 2, Co. Mayo(Grogan 1996), and Knocknarea, Co. Sligo (Bengtsson & Bergh 1984).The latter seems to have been occupied seasonally and was the focus ofthe large-scale production of hollow scrapers and roughouts. The wider settlement landscape In addition to the number of houses now identified there isincreasing evidence for the wider organization of the landscape in theNeolithic (Cooney 2000). The field systems at Ceide, Co. Mayo (Caulfield1983; 1988), the clusters of houses at Ballygalley, Ballyharry, Knowth,Tankardstown, Lough Gur, Slieve slieve?n. IrishA mountain.[Irish Gaelic sliabh, from Old Irish sl��ab.] Breagh and Corbally, the integratedNeolithic landscape at Knocknarea, Co. Sligo (Bergh 2000), and RoughanHill on the Burren in Co. Clare (Jones 1998), palisade enclosures atDonegore Hill, Co Antrim (Mallory & Hartwell 1984), Knowth (Eogan1984), and Thornhill, Co. Derry (Logue 2001), and banked enclosures atKnocknarea (Bergh 2000) and Lyles Hill (Evans 1953), all suggest thatclose-knit family groups may have formed an important facet of thesettlement evidence. As noted there are some ancillary buildings,perhaps workshops or stores, and associated activity outside the houseshave been identified at some sites, such as Ballygalley, Knowth, LoughGur, Richardstown and Inch; this suggests a wider array of domestic,agricultural and industrial activity than simple domiciles. In additionthe location, form and associated material of a few structures, such asKnocknarea, indicate that not all sites represent permanent habitationand that settlement patterns were made up of a variety of domestic andspecialist components. The Middle and Late Neolithic By the Middle Neolithic circular, less substantial, houses becomemore widespread (FIGURE 1). Stratigraphic evidence for the change occursat Knowth, Co. Meath, where at least 9 houses pre-date the large tombbut are later than the phase of rectangular houses; this development isalso evident at Lough Gur (Eogan & Roche 1997). What appear to becircular stakehole structures with stone hearths were found beneath thepassage tomb at Townleyhall 2, Co. Louth (Eogan 1963). These three siteshave assemblages containing a high proportion of decorated MiddleNeolithic pottery. Other sites with similar material, including Goodland(Case 1973), and Rathlin Island Rathlin Island(răth`lĭn), 5 sq mi (13 sq km), Co. Moyle, N Northern Ireland. Its cliffs, of limestone and basalt, rise at Slieveacarn to 449 ft (137 m). Farming and fishing are important. St. , Co. Antrim, Dalkey Island (Liversage1968), and Townleyhall 1, Co. Louth (Liversage 1960), have produced someevidence for structures. Two more substantial circular houses occuringat Slieve Breagh, Co. Meath (Grogan 1996), are apparently associatedwith a Grooved Ware Grooved ware is the name given to a pottery style of the British Neolithic. Its manufacturers are sometimes known as the Grooved ware people.Early in the 3rd millennium BC, Grooved ware began to appear all over the British Isles. assemblage (H. Roche pers comm.). Several circularhouses dated to the end of the Neolithic and associated with anassemblage dominated by Beaker beaker/beak��er/ (bek��er) a glass cup, usually with a lip for pouring, used by chemists and pharmacists. beakera round laboratory vessel of various materials, usually with parallel sides and often with a pouring spout. were excavated at Newgrange, Co. Meath(O'Kelly et al. 1983; Grogan 1996). The Middle to Late Neolithic houses are generally much smaller thanthose of the earlier period, averaging less than 25 sq. m in internalarea (TABLE 2). This suggests a possible reduction in the range ofactivities that took place within them as well as a slightly smallernumber of occupants (generally 5-7): floor storage space would have beenlimited and they could only have accommodated a small number for socialgatherings. It is also unlikely that they provided either enough spaceor light for anything other than small domestic tasks. These housesappear to be relatively simple domestic dwellings, lacking the status orsymbolism of the large rectangular sites. It can be suggested,therefore, that the apparent change in architectural style reflectsprimarily a change in the range of house-centred activities, as well asa possible reduction in the social role and status of the buildingsthemselves. As in the earlier period, agglomerated agglomeratedof particles, compacted together into a mass.agglomerated feedsparticulated feeds compacted or extruded into pellets and similar forms. settlement is a feature ofthe Middle and Late Neolithic. The evidence at Knowth and Newgrangesuggests that groups of four or more families may have formedclose-knit, possibly familial, units (Grogan 1996; Cooney & Grogan1994; Cooney 2000). Some of the slighter houses, such as those atNewgrange, may have had a short life-cycle. However, examination of someof the latter sites suggests that there is a longer pattern ofoccupation by smaller groups, for example at sites like Newgrange, LaughGur and Townleyhall 2 (Grogan 1996; Cooney & Grogan 1994). Theseexamples suggest the gradual movement of the focus of habitation sitesover several generations, with houses being replaced some metres or tensof metres away. This `settlement drift' has important implicationsfor our understanding of Neolithic social and settlement patterns andsuggests long-term permanence Permanencelaw of the Medes and PersiansDarius’s execution ordinance; an immutable law. [O.T.: Daniel 6:8–9]leopard’s spotsthere always, as evilness with evil men. [O.T.: Jeremiah 13:23; Br. Lit. of occupation on some sites at least. Theyprovide a reasonable basis for a model of at least one significantelement in domestic organization in the Middle and Late Neolithicperiods.TABLE 1. Rectangular Irish Neolithic houses: dimensions and otheravailable information. orien-site county tation entrance length width* Ballygalley 1 Antrim W-E W 13.0 4.2* Ballygalley 2 Antrim W-E ? ? 5.0* Ballyglass 1 Mayo NW-SE NW 12.0 4.8* Ballyharry 1 Antrim 13 6.5 (phase 1)* Ballyharry 1 Antrim 6.8 5 (phase 2)* Ballyharry 2 Antrim 5.7 3.7* Ballynagilly Tyrone E-W ? 6.5 5.5* Cloghers Kerry E-W E? 13 7.8Coolfore 1 * Louth 10 5Coolfore 2 * Louth 7 6* Corbally 1 Kildare NW-SE SE 11.07 6.73* Corbally 2 Kildare NW-SE SE 10.77 5.29* Corbally 3 Kildare NW-SE SE? 7.37 6.45Corbally KildareDrummenny Donegal NE-SW NE 9.3 6.3 Lower* Enagh Derry NW-SE WNW 6.2 4.3* Inch Down SE-NW W 6.2 4.3Knowth 1 Meath N-S NE 10.8 8.9Knowth 2 Meath NW-SE 10.87 5.98 (Zone A)Knowth 3 Meath NW-SE truncated 5.1 (Zone B)Knowth 4 Meath NW-SE W truncated ? (Zone B)Knowth 5 Meath NW-SE ? truncated 3Lough Gur A Limerick N-S SW 9.3 4.5-5.3Lough Gur B Limerick NE-SW ?NE c. 6.0 4.4Lough Gut E Limerick 7.0 6.2Lough Gur K1 Limerick E-W ? 7.2 6.6Lough Gur K2 Limerick NE-SW SE 6.5 4.5* Newtown Meath SE-NW ?W+E +9.5 6.6Platin MeathPepperhill Cork* Richardstown Louth NNW-SSE SW 11.4 7.54* Tankardstown 1 Limerick NE-SW NE 6.6 5.2* Tankardstown 2 Limerick NE-SW NE 13.9 6.3Thornhill DerryRathmullan LouthBallysacks Hills KildareKishoge Dublin E-W E? 5.8 4.6 area occsite l:w sq. m C 1 (1) C 2 (2) C 3 (3) (4)* Ballygalley 1 3.1:1 42.0 29.4 3.2 9.5 7* Ballygalley 2 ? ?* Ballyglass 1 2.5:1 57.6 27.9 17.9 9.3 7* Ballyharry 1 2:1 84.5 84.5? 21 (phase 1)* Ballyharry 1 1.4:1 34 34 9 (phase 2)* Ballyharry 2 1.5:1 21 21 5* Ballynagilly 1.2:1 35.8 -- 35.8 -- 9* Cloghers 1.67:1 72.45 22.7 20.8 29 6Coolfore 1 * 2:1 50 50Coolfore 2 * 1.17:1 42 42* Corbally 1 1.64:1 c. 73* Corbally 2 2:1 c. 55* Corbally 3 1.14:1 c. 42CorballyDrummenny 1.5:1 58.6 -- 58.6 15 Lower* Enagh 1.5:1 c. 21 c. 21* Inch 1.4:1 c. 21 c. 21 5Knowth 1 1.2:1 96 -- 96 -- 24Knowth 2 1.8:1 c. 65 65 (Zone A)Knowth 3 (Zone B)Knowth 4 (Zone B)Knowth 5Lough Gur A 1.3:1 c. 45.6 -- c. 45.6 -- 11Lough Gur B 1.4:1 +26.4 -- 26.4+ -- 7Lough Gut E 1.1:1 45.3 -- 45.3 -- 11Lough Gur K1 1.1:1 c. 48.2 -- c. 48.2 -- 12Lough Gur K2 1.4:1 29.3 -- 32.0 -- 8* Newtown 1.4:1 +62.7 33.7 +24.7 8PlatinPepperhill* Richardstown 1.5:1 77* Tankardstown 1 1.2:1 34.3 -- 34.3 -- 9* Tankardstown 2 2:1 87.6 58.4 11.6 11.3 16ThornhillRathmullanBallysacks HillsKishoge 1.261 26.68 26.7(1) end compartment, (2) central compartment, (3) end compartment,(4) possible no. of occupants, * plank built house.Shaded = no available information.TABLE 2. Circular Irish Neolithic houses: dimensions and otheravailable information. en- area occsite county trance diameter sq. m (1)Knowth (9+sites) Meath ? 6-8 m 28-3-50.3 7-12Lough Gur C1 Limerick ?SW 5.0 19.6 5Lough Gur C2 Limerick SE 6x4.7 22.5 6Lough Gur C3 Limerick ? 5.4 22.9 6Lough Gur site C Limerick ? c.5 c.19.6 5 (possible) 1Lough Gur D2 Limerick ?SE 6.7x5 26.9 7Lough Gur D3 Limerick ?SE 5x4.4 c.17.4 5Lough Gur L central Limerick ? c.5x3.5 c.14.2 4Lough Gur L A Limerick ? c.4.5 c.15.9 4Newgrange Meath ?N 4.2x3.2 13.4 3Newgrange final Meath ? 5-6 m 19.6-28.3 5-7 Neolithic (18 sites)Slieve Breagh 1 Meath SE 4.6 c.16.6 4Slieve Breagh 2 Meath ? 4.9 c.19.0 5(1) possible no. of occupantsTABLE 3. Irish Neolithic structures: dimensions and other availableinformation.site county entrance length* Ballyglass 2i Mayo ? 5* Ballyglass 2ii Mayo ? 5.7Dundrum Bay 1 Down ? diam. 2.4x2Knocknarea 1 Sligo SE 7.5Knocknarea 2 Sligo NE 6.5Lough Gur I Limerick ? 2.3Monknewtown ?SW 7.4Piperstown L Dublin * diam. 4.8Piperstown M Dublin ? diam. 6x4.5Piperstown N,P,Q Dublin SE, SE, NE diam. c. 4.5Piperstown A Dublin ?SE diam. 5.5x4.5Piperstown B Dublin ? diam. 2.3x2 area occsite width sq. m (1)* Ballyglass 2i 4 16 4* Ballyglass 2ii 2.7 c.10 3Dundrum Bay 1 4.8 1Knocknarea 1 4.5 28.3 7Knocknarea 2 4.7 24.6 6Lough Gur I 1.5 3.5 1Monknewtown 4.7 28.8 7Piperstown L 18.1 5Piperstown M 21.7 5Piperstown N,P,Q c.15.9 4Piperstown A 24.8 6Piperstown B 4.6 1(1) possible no. of occupants Acknowledgements. My thanks to Helen "To Helen" is the first of two poems to carry that name written by Edgar Allan Poe. The 15-line poem was written in honor of Jane Stanard, the mother of a childhood friend. It was first published in 1831 collection Poems of Edgar A. Roche and Ines Hagen forinsightful comments on the paper. I would also like to record mygratitude to the excavators, including Avril Purcell and Eoin Halpin,for sharing their discoveries, and to others, notably Paul Logue andJacintha Kiely, who generously discussed their material during aconference on Neolithic settlement in Belfast. References ANON. 2000. Spectacular evidence for Neolithic at Derry developmentsite, Archaeology Ireland 53: 5. APSIMON, A. 1976. Ballynagilly at the beginning and end of theIrish Neolithic, in S.J. de Laet (ed.), Acculturation acculturation,culture changes resulting from contact among various societies over time. Contact may have distinct results, such as the borrowing of certain traits by one culture from another, or the relative fusion of separate cultures. and continuity inAtlantic Europe Atlantic Europe is a geographical and anthropological term for the western portion of Europe which borders the Atlantic Ocean. At its widest definition, it comprises Spain, Portugal, north and western France, and the British Isles. : 15-38. Brugge. Dissertationes Archaeologicae Gandenses. BENGTSSON, H. & S. BERGH. 1984. The hut sites on KnocknareaMountain, in G. Burenhult, The Archaeology of Carrowmore: environmentalarchaeology and the megalithic tradition at Carrowmore, Co. Sligo,Ireland: 216-318. Stockholm: Institute of Archaeology The Institute of Archaeology is an academic department of University College London (UCL), in the United Kingdom. The Institute is located in a separate building at the north end of Gordon Square, Bloomsbury. , University ofStockholm. Theses and Papers in North-European Archaeology 14. BENNETT, I. (ed.). 2000. Excavations 1999. Dublin: Wordwell/Duchas. BERGH, S. 1995. Landscape of the Monuments. A study of the passagetombs in the Cuil Irra region. Stockholm: RiksantikvarieambetetArkeologiska undersokningar. 2000. Transforming Knocknarea--the archaeology of a mountain,Archaeology Ireland 52: 14-18. BYRNES, E. 2000. Richardstown, Co. Louth, in Bennett (ed.): 221-2. CASE, H.J. 1973. A ritual site in northeast Ireland, in G. Daniel& P. Kjaerum (ed.), Megalithic graves and ritual: 173-96. Moesgard:Jutland Archaeological Society. CAULFIELD, S. 1983. The Neolithic settlement of North Connaught, inT. Reeves-Smith & F. Hamond (ed.), Landscape archaeology Landscape archaeology is a body of method and theory for the study of the material traces of past peoples within the context of their interactions in the wider (typically regional) social and natural environment they inhabited. in Ireland:195-215. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports. International seriesS116. 1988. Ceide Fields and Belderrig Guide. Killala: Morrigan Book Co. COONEY, G. 1987. North Leinster in the earlier prehistoric period.Unpublished Ph.D thesis, National University of Ireland. 1990. The place of megalithic tomb cemeteries in Ireland, Antiquity64: 741-53. 1999. A boom in Neolithic houses, Archaeology Ireland 47: 13-14. 2000. Landscapes of the Irish Neolithic. London: Routledge. COONEY, G. & E. GROGAN. 1994. Irish prehistory prehistory,period of human evolution before writing was invented and records kept. The term was coined by Daniel Wilson in 1851. It is followed by protohistory, the period for which we have some records but must still rely largely on archaeological evidence to . a socialperspective. Dublin: Wordwell. CORLETT, C. 2001. Prehistoric life Prehistoric life are the diverse organisms that have inhabited Earth from the origin of life about 3.8 billion years ago (b.y.a.) to the Historic period (about 3500 BC) when humans began to keep written records. in the fast lane, ArchaeologyIreland 55: 4. CROSS, S. 2001. Competitive feasting in the Neolithic, ArchaeologyIreland 55: 11-13. CROTHERS, N. 1996. Ballyharry's game, Archaeology Ireland 38:12-14. DARVILL, T. 1996. Neolithic buildings in England, Wales Wales,Welsh Cymru, western peninsula and political division (principality) of Great Britain (1991 pop. 2,798,200), 8,016 sq mi (20,761 sq km), west of England; politically united with England since 1536. The capital is Cardiff. and theIsle of Man Noun 1. Isle of Man - one of the British Isles in the Irish SeaManBritish Isles - Great Britain and Ireland and adjacent islands in the north Atlantic , in Darvill & Thomas (ed.): 77-111. DARVILL, T. & J. THOMAS (ed.). 1996. Neolithic houses inNorthwest Europe and beyond. Oxford: Oxbow. Monograph 57/ NeolithicStudies Group Seminar Papers 1. DAVIES, O. 1936. Excavations at Dun Ruadh, Proceedings and Reportsof the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society 1: 50-75. 1949. Excavations at the Horned horned?adj.Having a horn, horns, or a hornlike growth.Adj. 1. horned - having a horn or horns or hornlike parts or horns of a particular kind; "horned viper"; "great horned owl"; "the unicorn--a mythical horned beast"; Cairn of Ballymarlagh, Co. Antrim,Ulster Journal of Archaeology 12: 26-42. DOODY, M. 2000. Bronze Age houses in Ireland, in A. Desmond et al.(ed.), New agendas in Irish prehistory. Papers in commemoration of LizAnderson Liz Anderson (born Elizabeth Jane Haaby March 13, 1930 in Roseau, Minnesota) is an American Country Music Singer-Songwriter. She is also the mother of Country-Music singer Lynn Anderson.Liz Anderson was a successful Country singer in her own right. : 135-59. Bray: Wordwell. DUNNE, C. 2001. Neolithic structure at Drummenny Lower, Co.Donegal, in Neolithic Settlement in Ireland and Western Britain.Belfast: Prehistoric Society/School of Archaeology and Palaeoecology paleoecology, palaeoecologythe branch of ecology that studies the relationship of ancient plants and animals to their environments. — paleoecologic, palaeoecologic, paleoecological, palaeoecological, adj. ,Queen's University Belfast. Unpublished Conference Summaries,Belfast 2001. DUNNE, L. & J. KIELY. 1999. Cloghers, Tralee, ArchaeologyIreland 47: 14. EOGAN, G. 1963. A Neolithic habitation-site and megalithic tomb inTownleyhall Townland, Co. Louth, Journal of the Royal Society ofAntiquaries of Ireland The Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland is a learned society based in Ireland, whose aims are 'to preserve, examine and illustrate all ancient monuments and memorials of the arts, manners and customs of the past, as connected with the antiquities, language, literature and 93 (1963): 37-81. 1984. Excavations at Knowth 1. Dublin: Royal Irish Academy The Royal Irish Academy (RIA) is one of Ireland's premier learned societies and cultural institutions. Founded in 1785, its current and former members include artists, scientists and writers from around Ireland. Monographs in Archaeology. EOGAN, G. & H. ROCHE. 1997. Excavations at Knowth 2. Dublin:Royal Irish Academy Monographs in Archaeology. 1998. Further evidence for Neolithic habitation at Knowth, Co.Meath, Riocht na Midhe 9(4): 1-9. EVANS, E.E. 1939. Excavations at Carnanbane, County Londonderry For other places with similar names, see and Derry (disambiguation).County Londonderry or County Derry (Irish: Contae Dhoire) is one of the six counties of Northern Ireland in the province of Ulster in Ireland. : Adouble horned cairn, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 45C: 1-12. 1953. Lyles Hill: A Late Neolithic site in County Antrim County Antrim (Contae Aontroma in Irish) is one of the six counties that form Northern Ireland. It is the 9th largest of the 32 traditional counties of Ireland in terms of area, and 2nd in terms of population behind Dublin. . Belfast:HMSO HMSO(in Britain) Her (or His) Majesty's Stationery OfficeHMSOn abbr (BRIT) (= His (or Her) Majesty's Stationery Office) → distribuidor oficial de las publicaciones del gobierno del Reino Unido . Archaeological Research Publications 2. GOWEN, M. 1988. Three Irish gas pipelines: new archaeologicalevidence in Munster. Dublin: Wordwell. GOWEN, M. & E. HALPIN. 1992. A Neolithic house at Newtown,Archaeology Ireland 20: 25-7. GOWEN, M. & C. TARBETT. 1988. A third season at Tankardstown,Archaeology Ireland 8: 156. GROGAN, E. 1980. Houses of the Neolithic period in Ireland andcomparative sites in Britain and on the Continent. Unpublished MAthesis, National University of Ireland. 1996. Neolithic houses in Ireland, in Darvill & Thomas (ed.):41-60. 1989. Settlement and society in north Munster during the Neolithicand Earlier Bronze Age. Unpublished Ph.D thesis, National University ofIreland. GROGAN, E. & G. EOGAN. 1987. Lough Gur excavations by Sean P For the other similarly named artists, see Sean Price and Sean Paul.Sean Paul Joseph (born May 7, 1979) known by his stage name Sean P (formerly Sean Paul), is an American rapper and one half (with J-Bo) of the group YoungBloodZ. . ORiordain: further Neolithic and Beaker habitations on Knockadoon,Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 87C: 299-506. HARTNETT, P.J. & G. EOGAN. 1964. Feltrim Hill, Co. Dublin: ANeolithic and Early Christian Site, Journal of the Royal Society ofAntiquaries of Ireland 94: 1-37. JONES, C. 1998. The discovery and dating of the prehistoriclandscape of Roughan Hill in Co. Clare, Journal of Irish Archaeology 9:27-44. KIELY, J. 1999. Cloghers, Tralee, Co. Kerry, in I. Bennett (ed.),Excavations 1998: 97. Dublin: Wordwell/Duchas. LIVERSAGE, G.D. 1960. A Neolithic site at Townleyhall, Co. Louth,Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland 90: 49-60. 1968. Excavations at Dalkey Island, Co. Dublin, 1956-1959,Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 66C: 53-233. LOGUE, P. 2001. A Neolithic settlement at Thornhill, Co.Londonderry, Neolithic Settlement in Ireland and Western Britain, ThePrehistoric Society/School of Archaeology and Palaeoecology,Queen's University, Belfast, Unpublished Conference Summaries,Belfast 2001. MALLORY, J. & B. HARTWELL. 1984. Donegore Hill, CurrentArchaeology 92: 271-4. MCMANUS, C. 1999. Possible Neolithic house at Inch, Downpatrick,Co. Down, Archaeology Ireland 47: 16. 1999. The Neolithic house at Enagh, Co. Derry, Archaeology Ireland47: 16. 2001. A Neolithic structure at Enagh, Co. Derry, in I. Armit et al.(eds) Neolithic Settlement in Ireland and Western Britain, ThePrehistoric Society/School of Archaeology and Palaeoecology,Queen's University, Belfast, Unpublished Conference Summaries,Belfast 2001. MOGEY, J.M. 1941. The Druid DruidMember of a learned class of priests, teachers, and judges among the ancient Celtic peoples. The Druids instructed young men, oversaw sacrifices, judged quarrels, and decreed penalties; they were exempt from warfare and paid no tribute. Stone, Ballintoy, Co. Antrim, UlsterJournal of Archaeology 4: 49-56. O DRISCEOIL, C. 2000. Neolithic in Co. Louth, Archaeology Ireland54: 6. O'KELLY, M.J., F. LYNCH & C. O'KELLY. 1978. Threepassage-graves at Newgrange, Co. Meath, Proceedings of the Royal IrishAcademy 78C: 249-352. O'KELLY, M.J., R. CLEARY & D. LEHANE. 1983. Newgrange, CoMeath, Ireland: The Late Neolithic/Beaker period settlement. (Ed. C.O'Kelly). Oxford: British Archaeological Reports. Internationalseries S190. O NUALLAIN, S. 1972. A Neolithic House at Ballyglass nearBallycastle, Co. Mayo, Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries ofIreland 102: 49-57. O RIORDAIN, S.P. 1954. Lough Gur Excavations: Neolithic and BronzeAge Houses on Knockadoon, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 56C:297-459. PURCELL, A. 1998. Brownstown, Corbally and Silliot Hill, Co.Kildare, in I. Bennett (ed.), Excavations 1997: 91. Dublin: Wordwell. 1999. Neolithic houses at Corbally, Kilcullen, Co. Kildare,Archaeology Ireland 47: 15. SIMPSON, D. 1996. The Ballygalley houses, Co. Antrim, Ireland, inDarvill & Thomas (ed.): 123-32. SIMPSON, D., M. CONWAY & D. MOORE. 1990. The Neolithicsettlement site at Ballygalley, Co. Antrim. Excavations 1989, interimreport, Ulster Journal of Archaeology 53: 40-49. 1994. Ballygalley, Co. Antrim, in I. Bennett (ed.), Excavations1993: 1-2. Dublin: Organisation of Irish Archaeologists/Wordwell. TOPPING, P. 1996 Structure and ritual in the Neolithic house: someexamples from Britain and Ireland, in Darvill & Thomas (ed.):157-70. WADDELL, J. 1998. The prehistoric archaeology History is the study of the past using written records. Archaeology can also be used to study the past alongside history. Prehistoric archaeology is the study of the past before historical records began. of Ireland. Galway:Galway University Press. EOIN GROGAN, The Discovery Programme, 34 Fitzwilliam Place, Dublin2, Ireland.

Neolithic nomads at El Multaga, Upper Nubia, Sudan.

Neolithic nomads at El Multaga, Upper Nubia, Sudan. Introduction In Upper Nubia and Central Sudan, Neolithic burial customs are welldocumented as a result of the extensive excavation of several burialsites, the most important of which are located at Kadero (Krzyzaniak1996), El Kadada (Geus 1984), El Ghaba (Lecointc 1987), Kadruka (Reinold1994) and, more recently, site R2 near Kawa (Salvatori & Usai 2001),where richly furnished burials are concentrated in large mounds. ElMultaga is located in Upper Nubia, in the districts of Gushabi and AbuDom, between Debba and Korti (Figure 1), in an area that was neverexplored in detail until November 2001, when a survey was carried out inthe frame of a salvage project by the SFDAS, the French Unit of NCAM NCAM National Center for Accessible MediaNCAM Neural Cell Adhesion MoleculeNCAM North Carolina Aviation Museum (National Corporation for Antiquities and National Museums of theSudan), over a territory of about 75 [km.sup.2]. Beside otherdiscoveries, pertaining mainly to the Neolithic, that survey led to theidentification of a large number of small mounds, some of which appearedto contain burials and/or artefacts, more particularly pottery waresthat could be attributed to the Karat karatA measure of the purity of gold. Pure gold is indicated by the label 24 karat. See also fineness. industry, defined during earlierresearch (Marks et al., 1968) and dating to the second half of the fifthmillennium BC. Consequently, a second campaign, mainly devoted to theexcavation of those mounds, was carried out in November-December 2002 bya team of archaeologists and anthropologists. It showed that, althoughthe pottery of the graves displays strong affinities with the materialfound at Kadruka, the burial customs differ from what is known of allthe sites excavated so far in the Nile valley. In this paper, we focuson these burial customs, using only the results of the second campaign. Forty-two Neolithic graves El Multaga stretches on old river silt overlaid by aeolian Ae��o��li��an?adj.1. Of or relating to Aeolis or its people or culture.2. Greek Mythology Of or relating to Aeolus.3. aeolian Variant of eolian.n.1. sand.The graves occupy circular mounds of various sizes that are 15 to 20 cmhigh and contain at most six burials. These mounds are scattered insideareas about one square kilometre Square kilometre (U.S. spelling: square kilometer), symbol km2, is a decimal multiple of the SI unit of surface area, the square metre, one of the SI derived units. 1 km2 is equal to: 1,000,000 m2 100 ha (hectare) Conversely: 1 m2 = 0. across that seem to form distinctclusters at a distance from each other. They differ from all the burialsites of the same period excavated so far in the Middle Nile valley,where numerous graves are concentrated in large mounds. Since the graveswere filled with the sediment extracted from them, their limits couldnot be identified easily unless evidenced by the position of theskeleton. Indeed, some are just big enough to contain the bodies, sothat the skull and the feet are then raised on both sides, displaying a"wall effect" (Figure 2). Finally, as corpses decayed, thesediment in which they were buried filled up progressively their innerspaces, preserving some trunk and pelvis volumes and keeping most bonesin primary position. [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] A total number of forty-two graves have been unearthed Unearthed is the name of a Triple J project to find and "dig up" (hence the name) hidden talent in regional Australia.Unearthed has had three incarnations - they first visited each region of Australia where Triple J had a transmitter - 41 regions in all. during thesecond campaign. Except for MTG MTG MeetingMTG MortgageMTG Magic: The GatheringMTG MountingMTG Mind the Gap (London underground announcement)MTG Methanol To GasolineMTG Manual Tank GaugingMTG Master Timing GeneratorMTG Micro Turbine Generator 19/8/1 and MTG 36/4/1, which werediscovered by accident in flat areas, they were distributed amongeighteen mounds. Forty of the graves contained a single burial and two,MTG 28/2/3 and MTG 18/1/4, contained double burials. In MTG 28/2/3, achild lay over an adult, while in 18/1/4 only long bones from two adultswere still present. All are primary burials that decayed inside thegrave without subsequent human intervention. The mounds included from one to six corpses (Table 1) that belongedonly to adults in seven instances, only to juveniles in three instancesand to both adults and juveniles in seven instances. As a result of badconservation of the pelvic bones, sex could be identified only for threeadults, following the method of Bruzek (1991), and the adults' ageat death could not be determined. On the other hand, using the modelsdefined by Moorees et al. (1963a, 1963b), we could distinguishtwenty-six adults and fifteen juveniles but, for the three remainingskeletons, poor bone conservation and lack of teeth prevented suchidentification. Table 2 reviews the age at death. Since the excavationsfocused on the mounds, the skeletal sample represents only part of thepopulation, a fact that prevents any discussion on its configuration,all the more since the chronological sequence Noun 1. chronological sequence - a following of one thing after another in time; "the doctor saw a sequence of patients"chronological succession, succession, successiveness, sequencetemporal arrangement, temporal order - arrangement of events in time of the burials cannot beevidenced either. Varying burial customs The excavation of the graves followed the recommendations of Duday(1978) et Duday et al. (1990), combining meticulous cleaning anddetailed photographic coverage The extent to which an area is covered by photography from one mission or a series of missions or in a period of time. Coverage, in this sense, conveys the idea of availability of photography and is not a synonym for the word "photography." of each stage. The skeletons display no fixed orientation, the most common onebeing east to west (37 per cent). Most are highly contracted with foldedlower limbs, a general position that varies alike for both children andadults (Table 3). The procubitus--ventral--(Figure 3) and dorsaldecubitus decubitus/de��cu��bi��tus/ (de-ku��bi-tus) pl. decu��bitus ? [L.]1. an act of lying down; the position assumed in lying down.2. decubitus ulcer. (Figure 4) positions are uncommon, the most usual being thelateral decubitus position either on the left or on the right side withno particular preference for one or the other (Figure 5). Still, thelateral decubitus position shows some diversity. Only a few skeletonsactually lay on their side, most positions being either between ventral ventral/ven��tral/ (ven��tral)1. pertaining to the abdomen or to any venter.2. directed toward or situated on the belly surface; opposite of dorsal.ven��traladj. and lateral (Figure 6) or between dorsal and lateral (Figure 7). As amatter of fact, most adults are in a "dorsal lateral" positionthat shows the back sides of the femurs, an indication that the lowerlimbs were folded against the upper part of the body. Such a choiceinvolves the use of straps, except for two individuals whose contractedposition may have resulted from the narrowness of the pit. Whatever thebody's position, such contraction concerns 60 per cent of thesample. The particular disposition of the lower limbs can be compared tothe foetal foe��tal?adj. Chiefly BritishVariant of fetal.Adj. 1. foetal - of or relating to a fetus; "fetal development"fetal position. In other sites, lower limbs are always contractedbut never so tightly. [FIGURES 4-7 OMITTED] The contracted position may 'also have been obtained using ashroud but, due to poor conservation, there is no archaeologicalevidence for it, all the more so because the use of a shroud would havecertainly resulted in a slight shifting of the bones out of the initialvolume of the corpse during its decay. Moreover, we did not identify anysediment that could have been the result of a gradual filling of thespace between shroud and corpse. At that stage, we cannot exclude that akind of flexible protection was used, but we do not have anyosteo-archaeological evidence for it. Grave goods In archaeology and anthropology grave goods are the items buried along with the body.They are usually personal possessions, supplies to smooth the deceased's journey into the afterlife or offerings to the gods. Grave goods are a type of votive deposit. Fifteen graves, containing the burials of twelve adults, twochildren and two individuals of uncertain age, included grave goods.These are restricted to personal adornments, pottery vessels, lower andupper grinders, scrapers, one stone mace-head (Figure 8) and rivershells. The personal adornments include three ivory rings, found at thewrists of two adults (MTG 19/7/1; MTG 28/2/3B) and a child (MTG 18/1/2),a string of thirteen amazon stone beads, found at the neck of a child(MTG 34/1/2), and one single amazon stone bead found at the neck of afemale adult (MTG 19/5/1), whose grave also contained a stone mace-head(Figure 8) and a bone awl awl:see drill. . Amazon stone beads were also found scatteredin grave MTG 19/7/1, which contained the disturbed skeleton of an adult.Sheep teeth and ostrich ostrich,common name for a large flightless bird (Struthio camelus) of Africa and parts of SW Asia, allied to the rhea, the emu and the extinct moa. It is the largest of living birds; some males reach a height of 8 ft (244 cm) and weigh from 200 to 300 lb eggshell fragments were also associated withsome burials. The pottery vessels, which include a large variety ofshapes, display many affinities with the material found at Kadruka,which relates to a vast technocomplex including the Badarian of UpperEgypt, the Abkan of Lower Nubia and Batn el-Hagar and the KhartoumNeolithic of Central Sudan, all dating to the second half of the fifthmillennium BC. [FIGURE 8 OMITTED] Conclusion The two salvage campaigns carried out at El Muhaga brought evidencefor Neolithic burial practices that contrast with what is known ofburial sites of the same cultural horizon in other parts of Nubia andCentral Sudan. Lack of grave concentration and scarcity of grave goods,which are among the most striking differences, seem to indicate anadaptation based on nomadism nomadismWay of life of peoples who do not live continually in the same place but move cyclically or periodically. It is based on temporary centres whose stability depends on the available food supply and the technology for exploiting it. , which is probably connected with theexploitation of the great wadis that join the Nile in that area. On the other hand burials of adults and children, whatever theirage at death, do not display any significant difference. The diversityof their orientations and positions fits in with what is known from theother sites of the same cultural horizon, but the contracted position ofthe lower limbs, which involves the use of straps, is greater here thananywhere else. Finally, El Multaga has revealed new aspects of the Neolithic ofthe Middle Nile valley hence enhancing considerably our understanding ofthe period. It also shows how rescue operations may help to enlarge ourknowledge of a cultural horizon since it led to the excavation of sitesthat otherwise would not have be identified. It is indeed significantthat a routine survey carried out during several months in 1966-67 by aSouthern Methodist University team in that area (Marks et al., 1968) didnot record any Neolithic burial site, not even a single grave.Table 1 Number of individual in mounds.Sondage Juveniles Adults Indeterminate Whole sampleMTG 3/10 1 1MTG 10/1 1 1MTG 11/5 1 1MTG 11/7 2 2MTG 12 2 2MTG 13 2 2MTG 15 2 1 3MTG 18/1 1 3 1 5MTG 18/2 1 4 1 6MTG 19/1 1 2 3MTG 19/5 1 1 2MTG 19/7 1 1MTG 19/8 1 1MTG 28/1 1 1MTG 28/2 3 1 1 5MTG 33 1 1MTG 34 1 1 2MTG 36/1 1 1MTG 36/3 3 3MTG 36/4 1 1Total 15 26 3 44Table 2 Distribution of the individuals accordingto age category.Age category N[0] (0-1 an) 1[0] / [1-4] 1[1-4] 1[1-4] / [5-9] 8[5-9] / [10-14] 2[10-14] 1[15-19] 1Adults (> 20 yr.) 26Indeterminate 3Total 44Table 3 Body position and lower limbs contraction. Juveniles WholeBody position (34%) Adults (59%) sample (100%)right lateral 4 11 15left lateral 3 9 13procubitus 2 2 4dorsal decubitus 2 2 4dorsal lateral 0 10 10ventral lateral 2 2 4Strict lateral 2 4 6Lower limbs hyper-flexed 9 18 27 Received: 27 June 2003; Revised: 28 September 2003 References BRUZEK, J., 1991. Fiabilite des procedes de determination du sexe apartir de l'os coxal coxal (käkˑ·sl),adj pertaining to the hip area. . Implications a l'etude du dimorphismesexuel de l'homme fossile. These de doctorat, Museumd'Histoire Naturelle, Institut de Paleontologie Humaine, 431p,inedit. DUDAY, H., 1978. Archeologie funeraire et anthropologie.Application des releves et de l'etude osteologiques al'interpretation de quelques sepultures pre- et protohistoriques dumidi de la France. Cahiers d'Anthropologie 1: 55-101. DUDAY, H., P. COURTAUD, E. CRUBEZY, P. SELLIER & A.M. TILLIER.1990. L'anthropologie "de terrain": reconnaissance etinterpretation des gestes funeraires, Bulletins et Memoires de laSociete d'Anthropologie de Paris 2: 29-50. GEUS, F. 1984. Excavations at el Kadada and the Neolithic ofCentral Sudan, in L. Krzyzaniak & M. Kobusiewicz (ed.), Origin andEarly Development of Food-Producing Cultures in North-Eastern Africa:361-372. Poznan: Poznan Archaeological Museum. --1991. Burial Customs in the Upper Main Nile, an Overview, in W.V.Davies (ed.), Egypt and Africa, Nubia from Prehistory prehistory,period of human evolution before writing was invented and records kept. The term was coined by Daniel Wilson in 1851. It is followed by protohistory, the period for which we have some records but must still rely largely on archaeological evidence to to Islam: 57-73.London: British Museum Press. KRZYZANIAK, L. 1996. The Kadero Project, The Sudan ArchaeologicalSociety Newsletter 10: 14-17. LECOINTE, Y. 1987. Le site neolithique d'el Ghaba: deux anneesd'activite (1985-1986), Archeologie du Nil Moyen 2: 69-87. MARKS A.E., J.L. SHINER shiner:see minnow. shinerAny of several small freshwater fishes (genera Notemigonus and Notropis, family Cyprinidae). The common shiner (Notropis cornutus) is a blue and silver minnow up to 8 in. (20 cm) long. & T.R. HAYS. 1968. Hays, Survey andExcavations in the Dongola Reach, Sudan. Current Anthropology 9(4):319-323. MOORREES, C.F., E.A. FANNING & E.E. HUNT. 1963a. Formation andresorption resorption/re��sorp��tion/ (re-sorp��shun)1. the lysis and assimilation of a substance, as of bone.2. reabsorption.re��sorp��tionn. of three decidious teeth in Children. American Journal ofPhysical Anthropology 21: 205-213. --1963b. Age variation of formation stages for ten permanent teeth.Journal of Dental Research 42 (6): 1490-1502. REINOLD, J. 2001. Kadruka and the Neolithic in the Northern DongolaReach, Sudan & Nubia, The Sudan Archaeological Society Bulletin 5:2-10. SALVATORI, S. & D. USAI. 2001. First Season of Excavation atSite R12, a Late Neolithic Cemetery in the Northern Dongola Reach. TheSudan Archaeological Society Bulletin 5:11-20. D. Peressinotto (1) *, A. Schmitt (1), Y. Lecointe (2), R. Pouriel(2), F. Geus ** (2) (1) David Peressinotto, Aurore Schmitt: UMR UMR Unite Mixte de Recherche (French: Mixed Unit of Research )UMR University of Missouri - RollaUMR Upper Mississippi RiverUMR Uniform Methods and Rules (US Department of Agriculture)UMR Unit Manning Report CNRS CNRS Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (National Center for Scientific Research, France)CNRS Centro Nacional de Referencia Para El Sida (Argentinean National Reference Center for Aids)5809, Bordeaux 1University, Laboratoire d'Anthropologie des Populations du Passe,Avenue des Facultes, F-33405 Talence Cedex, France * (Email: d.peressinotto@anthropologie.u-bordeaux.fr) (2) Yves Lecointe, Raphael Pouriel, Francis Geus, Section Francaisede la Direction des Antiquites du Soudan, Ambassade de France aKhartoum, 128bis rue de l'Universite, 75351, Paris Cedex 07, France ** (Email: fgeus@nil-moyen.com)

Neolithic transition in Europe: the radiocarbon record revisited. (Research).

Neolithic transition in Europe: the radiocarbon record revisited. (Research). Introduction There is a long tradition of using radiocarbon dates to map thespread of farming and the arrival of Neolithic cultures across Europe.Clark (1965) was the first to do this, plotting only the earliestsettlements in each territory; he noted "the need, in view of theelement of uncertainty inherent in individual determinations, to disposeof To determine the fate of; to exercise the power of control over; to fix the condition, application, employment, etc. of; to direct or assign for a use.See also: Dispose samples numerous enough to yield convincing patterns" (1965:66).He was able to discern a pattern of spread into Europe along the Danubefrom an origin in the South East, with a long delay before farmingreached the North European Plain, south Scandinavia, and other places inwestern Europe Western EuropeThe countries of western Europe, especially those that are allied with the United States and Canada in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (established 1949 and usually known as NATO). from the Alps to northern Britain and Ireland (ibid.:67). Ammerman and Cavalli-Sforza (1971) used regression methods todescribe the average rate at which farming spread. They also used thecorrelation coefficient Correlation CoefficientA measure that determines the degree to which two variable's movements are associated.The correlation coefficient is calculated as: (r) to assess the extent to which regional ratesof spread differed from that overall average. They reported an averagediffusion rate from an assumed origin in Jericho of about 1 km/year, andfound a high value for r (0.89) in their sample of 53 Neolithicsites--suggesting that this rate was quite representative of the processgenerally. However, they also noted evidence for regional variation inrates (from 0.7 km/year in the Balkans, to 5.6 km/year for theBandkeramik culture). Subsequently, they used spatial interpolation interpolationIn mathematics, estimation of a value between two known data points. A simple example is calculating the mean (see mean, median, and mode) of two population counts made 10 years apart to estimate the population in the fifth year. methods to generate isochron maps that plotted the mean rates of spreadof farming (and of the disappearance of hunting and gathering) in twodimensions (Ammerman & Cavalli-Sforza 1984). They conjectured thatthe pattern observed may have been produced, not by cultural diffusion In anthropology, cultural diffusion refers to the spread of ideas, inventions, or patterns of behavior to different societies (Wintrop 1991:82)Since cultures have never been completely isolated from each other, diffusion has happened throughout history, and continues on (the adoption of cultural traits), but by a gradual process of spatialpopulation expansion and replacement. They found support for this `demicdiffusion' model in a synthetic gene map, generated from the SE-NWgradient in the first Principal Component of variation in allele allele(əlēl`): see genetics. alleleAny one of two or more alternative forms of a gene that may occur alternatively at a given site on a chromosome. frequencies of modern Europeans. In their monograph, they reported thatsuch a cline (trend) in gene frequencies was expected where farming hadspread by demic diffusion. The steepness of the cline was modelled as afunction of the rate of reproductive mixing with hunter-gatherers; whenthis rate was very low, the cline would be relatively flat, such thatgene pools near the origin of the diffusion would contain about 90% ofinitial farmers' genes, and gene pools at the periphery wouldcontain 75% of them. Subsequent work has transformed this simple picture. It has beenshown mathematically that identical travelling waves for the spread offarming can be generated by demic expansion, demic diffusion, or bytrait adoption-diffusion (Aoki, Shida & Shigesada 1996).Archaeologists have pointed to the very different rates of the spread offarming in different regions of Europe Europe is often divided into regions due to geographical, cultural or historical criteria. Some common divisions are as follows. Directional divisionsGroupings by compass directions are the hardest to define in Europe, since (among other issues) the pure geographical criteria , and have challenged the use ofsynthetic gene maps to validate the demic diffusion model (since suchmaps contain no information about the chronology of dispersals). Themethodology of generating synthetic gene maps has also been challenged,since it can potentially produce clines even in spatially random data(Sokal, Oden & Thomson 1999). Furthermore, it is now recognized thatgenuine clines in gene frequencies can be produced by populationreplacement with successive founder effects (cf. Barbujani et al. 1995),or by demic diffusion with acculturation acculturation,culture changes resulting from contact among various societies over time. Contact may have distinct results, such as the borrowing of certain traits by one culture from another, or the relative fusion of separate cultures. (cf. Rendine et al. 1996), orby gradients in duration of natural selection when the selectionpressures are initiated by adoption of a new economic strategy, ratherthan by population replacement (Fix 1996, 1997). Some recent genetic studies have found distinctive European mtDNAmatrilineages that have an apparently Upper Palaeolithic or Mesolithiccommon ancestor; it has been estimated by Richards et al. (1996, 1998,2000) that female immigrant farmers contributed only about 20% of themodern European mitochondrial mitochondrialpertaining to mitochondria.mitochondrial RNAsa unique set of tRNAs, mRNAs, rRNAs, transcribed from mitochondrial DNA by a mitochondrial-specific RNA polymerase, that account for about 4% of the total cell RNA that gene pool. A similar conclusion has beenreached with respect to male genetic contributions as measured fromY-chromosome markers (Semino et al. 2000). Thus, much recent geneticwork indicates that, at the continental scale, farming spread intoEurope by a mixture of demic expansion, demic diffusion, and traitadoption-diffusion, with adoption-diffusion as the predominantmechanism. However, other studies suggest that both female and maleimmigrant farmers may have contributed more significantly to the modernEuropean gene pool (~45% of modern Y-chromosomal variation, Rosser etal. 2000; see also for mtDNA: Simoni et al. 2000, and for nuclear genesand classic protein markers: Barbujani and Bertorelle 2001). Moreover,Chikhi et al. (2002) have shown that it is not straightforward to makeinferences from percentages of genes in modern populations to relativeproportions of bearers of genes in the remote past. The link between thetwo has to be modelled mathematically. Chikhi et al.'s resultssuggest that when this is done demic diffusion provides the bestexplanation of present-day patterns. Bentley et al. (2003) synthesiseChikhi's approach with new archaeological evidence for sex-biaseddispersal. Meanwhile, new archaeological models of the transition fromforaging to farming have been proposed which allow a more sensitiveinterpretation of the radiocarbon data. Bogucki (e.g Bogucki &Grigiel 1993) has proposed a two stage (pioneer/established) model ofdemic diffusion in North Central Europe Central Europe is the region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and Western Europe. In addition, Northern, Southern and Southeastern Europe may variously delimit or overlap into Central Europe. . Zvelebil and collaborators(1991, 1996, 2000) have proposed a three-phase model of the transition(availability, substitution, and consolidation) in which the local andregional rate of spread becomes a measure of the absolute duration ofthese successive transitional phases. It is now widely recognized thatthere may have been significant regional variation in the relativeimportance of demic expansion, demic diffusion, and of traitadoption-diffusion as the mechanisms of spread (see e.g. Arias 1999,Gronenborn 1999). At the same time disagreements continue over thenature of the processes responsible for some of the most important EarlyNeolithic phenomena, especially the spread of the Central EuropeanLinearbandkeramik and the Mediterranean Impressed Ware. One recentdiagram of the regional variation in mechanisms of spread is reproducedin Figure 1 (from Zvelebil & Lillie 2000). [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] It is clear that the time is ripe for a re-evaluation both of theradiocarbon record, and of its potential as a test-bed for alternativemodels of the demography of the Neolithic transition. In this paper wereport our preliminary findings. Methods The basis of our re-evaluation was the collection of a spatialdatabase A spatial database is a database that is optimized to store and query data related to objects in space, including points, lines and polygons. While typical databases can understand various numeric and character types of data, additional functionality needs to be added for databases of radiocarbon dates for the later Mesolithic and earlyNeolithic of Europe, roughly 9000-5000 BP; this time frame covers therange from the later Mesolithic in southeast Europe to the earlierNeolithic in northern and northwest Europe. In addition information wascollected about the contexts of the dates, the material dated andeconomic and cultural associations. Europe was defined as the area tothe west of a line from the Black Sea to the eastern Baltic. It became clear in the course of the project that, despite thelarge sums of money which have been spent over the years on radiocarbondating in Europe, the state of public availability of the dates, theircontext and associations and details which enable users to judge thereliability of dates is in general very poor. Thus, no claim is madethat the database is in any sense complete. To achieve this would take amajor collaborative European exercise over many years. A total of justover 2600 samples were eventually included in the database. Thisinvolved the exclusion of dates about which there were grounds forsuspicion in terms of their reliability and associations. Much of theinformation for this was obtained from Gob (1990) but similar judgementswere also made about other dates on the basis of internal evidence fromtheir sources. Again, we would not claim to avoided errors of bothinclusion and exclusion, for the reasons just mentioned, but since ourinterest is in identifying continent-wide patterns on the basis of largenumbers of observations we do not believe that these affect ourconclusions. The database consists of four main tables apart from thereferences. They are described in Table 1, where shortcomings are alsonoted. The database is available through the UK Archaeology Data Service(http://www.ads.ahds.ac.uk). Analytical approaches Two sets of analyses were carried out using the database: a set ofspatial analyses for the whole of Europe examining the extent to whichthe subsequent accumulation of dates supported or modified the patternssuggested by Clark (1965) and by Ammerman and Cavalli-Sforza (1971,1984); and a further set of analyses by country to look at the relationbetween Mesolithic and Neolithic dates and the light this might throw ondemographic models for the transition. Spatial analyses A set of 508 Neolithic sites and 207 Mesolithic sites was used inthese analyses. The classification of dates as Mesolithic or Neolithicwas on the basis of conventional cultural assignment. While in principleit is important to distinguish the spatial and chronologicaldistribution of different elements of the Neolithic `package', inpractice it is not currently possible to do this given the quality ofthe available information. Nevertheless, we feel that accepting theconventional cultural distinctions gives us a valid initial view of thesituation. A single date was taken for all distinct sites in each of thetwo categories for which latitude./ longitude, co-ordinates wereavailable; at sites where there are multiple radiocarbon dates, only theearliest Neolithic date and/or the most recent Mesolithic date wereused. For the initial analysis, the visualization techniques weresimilar to those used by Clark (1965) and Ammerman & Cavalli-Sforza(1971, 1984). Following Clark (1965), the 508 Neolithic dates were grouped intotemporal categories at 1200-year intervals (in uncalibrated years BC).Following Ammerman & Cavalli-Sforza (1971, 1984), a major axis major axisn.The longer of the two lines about which an ellipse is symmetrical; the axis that passes through both focuses of an ellipse.Noun 1. regression analysis In statistics, a mathematical method of modeling the relationships among three or more variables. It is used to predict the value of one variable given the values of the others. For example, a model might estimate sales based on age and gender. was undertaken of the date of early farming sitescompared with their distance from a nominal origin at Jericho. Neolithicdates (in uncalibrated years BP) were imported into a Grass GIS GRASS (Geographic Resources Analysis Support System) is an open source, Free Software Geographical information system (GIS) with raster, topological vector, image processing, and graphics production functionality that operates on various platforms through a graphical user interface package,and contour lines fitted to the data at 500 year intervals. Theprocedure was first used to produce an isochron map using Ammerman andCavalli-Sforza's data (Figure 2) and then, using the new data-base,for Mesolithic sites (Figure 6) and Neolithic sites (Figure 7). [FIGURES 2, 6-7 OMITTED] We also undertook other map visualizations and statistical analyses(Russell & Steele in press, see also Glass et al. 1999). First, weexperimented with geographically-weighted regression (Fotheringham,Brunsdon & Charlton 2000, 2001), a technique which allows us todetect local variation in trends in large-scale spatial datasets, byweighting each control datum The singular form of data; for example, one datum. It is rarely used, and data, its plural form, is commonly used for both singular and plural. in a regression analysis inversely to itsdistance from a specified point location. A second new method of analysis uses ranges of calibrated datesrather than point values. Ammerman & Cavalli-Sforza's andClark's methodologies used uncalibrated dates and treated thedate's modal value Noun 1. modal value - the most frequent value of a random variablemodestatistics - a branch of applied mathematics concerned with the collection and interpretation of quantitative data and the use of probability theory to estimate population parameters as a point value. The irregular shape of many ofthe calibrated probability distributions of radiocarbon dates makesstatistical treatment that requires point values problematic (Figure 3).Most commonly this is overcome by treating the modal value of theradiocarbon probability distribution Probability distributionA function that describes all the values a random variable can take and the probability associated with each. Also called a probability function.probability distributionas a point value and using weightedregression to minimize the influence of dates with a large associatederror (e.g. Glass et al. 1999). We wanted to assess how problematic theuse of the modal value might be, particularly in instances when thecalibrated radiocarbon distribution deviates from a normal distribution(for example, Figure 3). To do this dates were calibrated in OxCal3(Ramsey 1999). The area under the calibration curve In analytical chemistry, a calibration curve is a general method for determining the concentration of a substance in an unknown sample by comparing the unknown to a set of standard samples of known concentration. was used tocalculate the probability that a site was occupied within a giveninterval of the calibrated date range. The probability that a site wasoccupied at successive 100-year intervals is reflected by the rise andfall in the area of the circle that marks a site's location. Boththe late Mesolithic and the early Neolithic dates were used in theanalysis. [FIGURE 3 OMITTED] In the second set of analyses dates were categorised by country, togive a broad regional breakdown, and the summed calibrated probabilitiesof the dates were obtained, with Mesolithic and Neolithic datesdistinguished from one another. The rationale for this is the assumptionthat fluctuations through time in the summed probabilities should give ageneral indication of fluctuations in settlement intensity. The factthat the absolute numbers of Mesolithic dates are in general much lowerthan for the Neolithic may or may not give an indication of the relativeintensity of settlement in the two periods given the different types ofarcheological evidence which generally characterise them. However, evenif this is not the case, the fluctuations within each period within agiven broad region should be interpretable in this way, so long as thenumber of dated sites is not too small. Results Spatial analyses Clark's map of the changing distribution of early farmingsites is closely mirrored when the expanded database of Neolithic sitesis analysed (Figure 4). Sites are older close to the origin in the NearEast and they become increasingly younger with movement in a north-westdirection from this origin. Ammerman & Cavalli-Sforza's (1971,1984) major regression analysis of rates of spread from an assumedorigin at Jericho was repeated with the new database (using 510radiocarbon determinations) (Figure 5), yielding the major axisequation: [y.sub.date] = (-0.77 [+ or -] 0.03) [x.sub.distance] + (8240 [+ or-] 110). [FIGURES 4-5 OMITTED] This suggests that the overall rate of spread is ~1.3 km/year andthat the mean notional departure time from Jericho was ~8240 [+ or -]110 yrs BP (uncal.). In this case, linear regression Linear regressionA statistical technique for fitting a straight line to a set of data points. of the twovariables produces a correlation coefficient, r = 0.73. In other words Adv. 1. in other words - otherwise stated; "in other words, we are broke"put differently ,with the larger data set now available the mean rate of spread issimilar to that observed by Ammerman & Cavalli-Sforza, although thedispersion around that rate is somewhat greater. It is important to note that calibrating the radiocarbon valuesderived from in this major axis model would give us a mean originationtime in Jericho of about 10 400 cal BP for European Neolithicpopulations. If we approximate a confidence range for this date bytaking estimates from linear regression models for dates on distance andfor distance on dates (cf. Draper 1992), we derive a range for the meanNear Eastern origination time of 9200-12 400 cal BP. Such estimates fitquite well with observed dates for the end of the Natufian (c. 10 200BP, Belfer-Cohen 1991, which becomes c. 12 000 cal BP aftercalibration). This is interesting when we consider that current debateabout European genetic origins contrasts a possible major dispersal at11-14 000 cal BP (variously described as `Mesolithic' by Sykes,1999 and as `Late Upper Palaeolithic' by Richards et al., 2000),with one at 8500 cal BP (described as `Neolithic' by Sykes, 1999).In other words, one effect of calibration is that the mtDNA signaturesof these two events appear less well-resolved than some geneticistssuggest. Some of the mtDNA variation currently attributed to the lateglacial recolonization Re`col`o`ni`za´tionn. 1. A second or renewed colonization. of Europe may in fact derive from Neolithic demicdiffusion! The isochron maps compiled to show the distribution of the lastforaging and first farming sites in Europe (Figures 6 and 7) also shareparallels with Ammerman & Cavalli-Sforza's isochron maps. Thedelay in the expansion into the Alpine area shows up clearly in thenewly compiled isochron map of the early Neolithic (Figure 7). Theoverall expansion northwestwards from a near eastern origin ismaintained, although the isochrons are less regularly spaced suggestinga much greater variance in the rate of spread of early farmers into thedifferent areas of Europe. But we must recognize the methodologicallimitations of this technique. Interpolation error will be large inregions with sparse or no sites to use as control points, and theinterpolation has been continuous across sea as well as land (althoughthe sea has subsequently been masked off). This technique thereforerisks giving a misleadingly coherent impression of the spatial structureof any such dataset. In Figure 8 we have plotted results of a locally-weighted lineartrend analysis for the ages of early Neolithic sites, for each of aregular grid A regular grid is a tessellation of the Euclidean plane by congruent rectangles or a space-filling tessellation of rectilinear parallelepipeds. Grids of this type appear on graph paper and may be used in finite element analysis. of points. It is a convention that vector field In mathematics a vector field is a construction in vector calculus which associates a vector to every point in a (locally) Euclidean space.Vector fields are often used in physics to model, for example, the speed and direction of a moving fluid throughout space, or the diagramsshould plot values on a regular grid in this way. We have used projectedco-ordinates, and we have only used the earliest sites in each 60km-by-60 km cell of a sampling grid. The orientations of the arrows showthe direction in which sites get younger. The lengths of the arrowsscale to the rate of spread. The colours of the arrows indicate thestrength of the locally-weighted linear trend (where red is awell-fitting model, and blue is a poorly-fitting model). What thistechnique shows us is that we can only pick up significant regionaltrends in regions where our dataset is full, rather than sparse. Thistechnique therefore combines the best elements of the previous two (asused by Ammerman and Cavalli-Sforza), but avoids their weaknesses. Wecan observe local variation in rate and direction of diffusion, and itsstatistical strength. We do not need to assume any single origin, and wecan see the regions where the model fits well and the regions where itfits badly. [FIGURE 8 OMITTED] However, this too is an oversimplification o��ver��sim��pli��fy?v. o��ver��sim��pli��fied, o��ver��sim��pli��fy��ing, o��ver��sim��pli��fiesv.tr.To simplify to the point of causing misrepresentation, misconception, or error.v.intr. . When the whole of thecalibrated date distribution is used to show spread, rather than themodal value of the uncalibrated date, the pattern of spread is far lessobvious. The value in this approach is twofold: it emphasises theprobabilistic nature of radiocarbon dates, and it enables us to see theextent of co-occurrence of Mesolithic and Neolithic sites within aregion. Neither of these aspects of the chronology of the transition canbe easily visualised using regression techniques or spatialinterpolation methods. Regional analyses The results of this procedure for countries with a reasonablenumber of dates are shown in Figures 9 and 10. It should be noted thatthe probability distributions of the Mesolithic and Neolithic dates areseparately normalised to the same height and do not reflect thedifferent numbers of samples used. It is also important to emphasisethat the end cut off date of the Neolithic dates is relativelyarbitrary. Within any given region, dates were included that wereassociated with cultures regarded as characteristic of the local earlierNeolithic. Subdividing the dates by country is a very rough and readyway of obtaining a regionalisation Regionalisation refers to the tendency to form regions or the process of doing so. In geography, the process of delineating the Earth into regions. In globalization discourse, a world that becomes less interconnected, with a stronger regional focus. and summed date probabilities a verycoarse measure of occupation, but perhaps the most striking feature ofthe country-by-country patterns shown in Figures 9 and 10 is how veryvaried they are, and this variation has potential significance for therelevance of the models of `neolithisation' in the differentregions. [FIGURE 9-10 OMITTED] We shall look separately at regions which Zvelebil & Lillie(2000, cf Figure 1) characterise as experiencing significant demicdiffusion (Figure 9), and regions which they characterise asexperiencing predominantly trait adoption-diffusion (Figure 10).Overall, we have the impression from these probability plots that inregions of predicted demic diffusion the appearance of an earlyNeolithic population was relatively abrupt: that is, there is no long"fat negative tail" to these summed distributions. Secondly,in regions of predicted demic diffusion, Mesolithic dates tend either todisappear well ahead of the establishment of early Neolithic occupation,or to continue at a fairly constant rate well after it. By contrast, inareas of predicted trait adoption-diffusion we do see such long fatnegative tails to the early Neolithic distributions, implying a moregradual rate of increase in Neolithic settlement density. In suchregions, the Mesolithic radiocarbon record tends to tail off graduallywith significant overlap with that of the early Neolithic. We can nowmake some more specific, but still impressionistic im��pres��sion��is��tic?adj.1. Of, relating to, or practicing impressionism.2. Of, relating to, or predicated on impression as opposed to reason or fact: impressionistic memories of early childhood. suggestions aboutthese pooled radiocarbon records. Regions predicted to have experienced demic diffusion The pattern for Greece does not contradict the view that we aredealing with the expansion of new populations from Anatolia rather thanan indigenous Neolithic development. However, the number of Mesolithicdates is still small and it remains unclear how much the current stateof affairs reflects lack of work rather than lack of settlement. In the former Yugoslavia the Mesolithic dates come from a verysmall number of sites, dominated by Lepenski Vir Lepenski Vir is an important Mesolithic archaeological site located in Serbia in the central Balkan peninsula. It consists of one large settlement with around ten satellite villages. , indicating a need forcaution. Nonetheless, what emerges is a Neolithic represented by theStar evo culture which appears very suddenly at around 8000 cal. BP,most probably as a result of populations expanding from Greece, and aMesolithic which carries on in such locations as the Iron Gates gorgesor the mountains of Montenegro, overlapping and interacting with thenewly arrived Neolithic colonists. Italy has a rather firmer foundation and at first sight looks moreambivalent in terms of its possible implications for`neolithisation' processes since there is a later Mesolithicconcentration of dates immediately prior to and overlapping with theearliest Neolithic ones. However, an examination of the geographicallocation of the sites concerned reveals that all the late Mesolithicsites are in northern Italy Northern Italy comprises of two areas belonging to NUTS level 1: North-West (Nord-Ovest): Aosta Valley, Piedmont, Lombardy, Liguria North-East (Nord-Est): Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Veneto, Trentino-Alto Adige/S��dtirol, Emilia-Romagna while virtually all the earliest Neolithicdates come from the south, suggesting that in this region at least theearliest Neolithic is likely to represent colonisation. In Germany there is a marked decline Mesolithic occupation before8000 cal. BP and the body of the Neolithic distribution begins verysharply at around 7400 cal. BP, associated with the appearance of theLinearbandkeramik (LBK LBK Lubbock (Texas)LBK Linearbandkeramik (European Archaeological Culture)LBK Landing Barge, Kitchen (US Navy)LBK Lutherske BekjennelseskirkeLBK Location-Based Key ). This would seem to suggest a decline inMesolithic occupation after 8000 cal. BP and hardly fits in with thesuggestion that the German LBK represents an indigenous adoption ofNeolithic culture and economy. On the contrary, it seems to confirm theidea of the LBK as an expanding, colonising population moving into anarea which was relatively thinly occupied. However, the probablepresence of Mesolithic groups with distinctive La Hoguette La Hoguette is a commune of the Calvados d��partement in the Basse-Normandie r��gion in France. Its postal code is 14700. The INSEE code is 14332. Archeology pottery inthe west of the area should be noted (see e.g. Jochim 2000, Figure 7.5).The recent work of Price et al. (2001; see also Bentley et al. 2002),involving strontium strontium(strŏn`shēəm)[from Strontian, a Scottish town], a metallic chemical element; symbol Sr; at. no. 38; at. wt. 87.62; m.p. 769°C;; b.p. 1,384°C;; sp. gr. 2.6 at 20°C;; valence +2. isotope analysis Isotope analysis is the identification of isotopic signature, the distribution of certain stable isotopes and chemical elements within chemical compounds. This can be applied to a food web to make it possible to draw direct inferences regarding diet, trophic level, and subsistence. of LBK skeletons, suggests bothpopulation immigration immigration,entrance of a person (an alien) into a new country for the purpose of establishing permanent residence. Motives for immigration, like those for migration generally, are often economic, although religious or political factors may be very important. and some degree of mixing with neighbouringgroups, possibly foragers. In the case of Belgium a continuous low level of Mesolithicoccupation is suggested, continuing in parallel with the earlyNeolithic, but examination of the coordinates of these later Mesolithicsites indicates that they are located significantly further west thantheir early Neolithic contemporaries. The Neolithic begins quiteabruptly at 5400 cal. BC with the earliest Bandkeramik settlements. Regions predicted to have experienced trait adoption-diffusion The pattern for France once again shows a series of Mesolithicfluctuations but its most striking feature is the very gradual increasein the number of Neolithic dates through time. A low Mesolithic levelleading up to 7500 cal. BP gives way to a gradually rising intensity ofNeolithic occupation. Two-thirds of the very earliest Neolithic dates,ie., those where the beginning of the 1 [sigma] calibrated range goesback before 7000 cal. BP, are from the southern half of France andassociated with Cardial and related cultures, while the remaining thirdare northern French LBK-related dates. There would appear to be strongevidence here for the early indigenous adoption of Neolithic attributesby Mesolithic populations in France, at least in its southern half. Inthis respect the radiocarbon evidence supports the inferences made fromthe presence of sherds of west European La Hoguette pottery in early LBKsites (see again, Jochim 2000). The number of French dates issufficiently large In mathematics, the phrase sufficiently large is used in contexts such as: is true for sufficiently large to examine this geographical issue more closely, bydividing the French dates into a southern and a northern set at 47degrees latitude to see if there is any difference in the pattern on`neolithisation' between that in the south derived from theMediterranean Impressed Ware route and that in the north, where therewas strong LBK influence (Figure 10). Perhaps surprisingly, the patternseems to be the same in both northern and southern France, correspondingto the overall pattern noted above of gradually rising Neolithicoccupation, but with a 400 year delay in the northern half; in southernFrance the 95% confidence interval confidence interval,n a statistical device used to determine the range within which an acceptable datum would fall. Confidence intervals are usually expressed in percentages, typically 95% or 99%. for the Neolithic dates begins atc.7800 cal. BP, while in northern France it is c.7400 cal. BP. However,the northern French pattern does not suggest a sudden LBK impact, suchas we see elsewhere. The picture for Britain is more ambivalent in that there is adecline in the summed Mesolithic probabilities prior to the rise of theNeolithic but in the light of the other patterns, it seems at presentmore convincing to see it as pointing towards indigenous adoption ratherthan than colonisation. This seems even more likely to be the case forIreland, where the main Mesolithic peak is immediately prior to thebeginning of the Neolithic, followed apparently by a very suddentransition. However, as Woodman (2000) makes clear, the picture remainsvery unclear. Concluding remarks Discussion of the spread of agriculture in Europe has beenpolarised in recent years. Proponents of demic diffusion have becomeincreasingly embattled in the face both of archaeological arguments forregional variation in mechanism, and of genetic evidence favouring acombination of demic diffusion and adoption-diffusion in a populationwhich largely retained its local, late Palaeolithic genetic composition,although recently they have been fighting back. Our initial analysis ofthe new radiocarbon database confirms the robustness of the spatialpatterns described by Clark and by Ammerman & Cavalli-Sforza.However, the existence of a clear correlation between date of earliestoccurrence and distance from an assumed source is quite as compatiblewith a wave of advance of a cultural trait through a pre-existingpopulation, as it is with a wave of population replacement. Thegradients in gene frequencies plotted in synthetic gene maps can also beexplained by multiple mechanisms, of which demic expansion is only one. We conjecture that regional differences in the importance of demicand of adoption diffusion may reflect both underlying differences in therelative fertility and population density of local foraging and farminggroups, and underlying differences in the readiness of foragers toconvert to farming. As a first exploration of the demographic picture,we have plotted summed radiocarbon distributions by region, taking theseas very approximate measures of occupancy by foraging and farmingcommunities. We have proposed that in areas where demic diffusion ispredicted to have occurred, a more abrupt transition may be visible.However, the underlying causes of such abruptness (if it is indeed agenuine pattern) remain to be investigated. The environmental factorsdifferentiating regions of probable demic diffusion from those ofprobable adoption-diffusion also need to be examined in terms of theirimplications for forager and farmer demography. Our intention here is tostimulate further work on the large-scale patterns and processes, not toinhibit it by reinforcing that polarisation of debate which is tendingto cause stagnation StagnationA period of little or no growth in the economy. Economic growth of less than 2-3% is considered stagnation. Sometimes used to describe low trading volume or inactive trading in securities.Notes:A good example of stagnation was the U.S. economy in the 1970s. .Table 1. Structure of the radiocarbon database. The database isconstructed in Microsoft Access. The sources used includepublications, radiocarbon lab databases and other relevant data setsfrom universities or archaeological bodies. Full details are givenwith the database. Site co-ordinates in latitude and longitude wereobtained from the sources which provided the dates. British and Irishsites were reported in the relevant OS grids, and therefore had to beconverted to WGS84 in order to be incorporated in the database. Forthe calibration of the dates OxCal 3beta.2 was used, which providesthe 93 calibration curve.Table Name Table Fields CommentSample sample ID, date BP, error, Information not complete calibrated dates BC in some fields as lab earliest and latest 1 and 2 information rarely sigma, kind of lab (AMS or mentioned in publications conventional), treatment, or databases delta [sup.13]C correction, material, comments, date of process, source, lab code, submittersSite sample ID, site name, site The `site type' field could ID, area, country, cultural not be completed in many ID, site type, latitude, cases as the relevant longitude, comments, information was not period, references, available. Latitude and association longitude could not be obtained for about 250 sites. The `period' field states the temporal characterisation (in archaeological conventional terms) of the relevant site by the archaeologist in charge. The `references' field has information that was provided by the sources used. Gob (1990) provided comments on the quality of the association between sample and purported context for those dates he included and such information was obtained from other sources wherever possible.Site phase Sample ID, site phase, Only rarely could relevant absence or presence of information be added in pottery, domesticated the table, as the site animals and plants and reports are generally the human remains. only source for this kind of information.Context Sample ID, context, context Again site reports are type necessary for the type of context, as well as for the completion of the `site phase' and `context' fields. The `Site Phase' and `Context' tables should be used together as there is no consistency in the way the two terms have been used in the data sources Acknowledgements We wish to thank the UK Arts and Humanities Research Board forfunding the database collection element of this work, which was carriedout by Marina Gkiasta. Thembi Russell carried out the spatial analysis (Data West Research Agency definition: see GIS glossary.) Analytical techniques to determine the spatial distribution of a variable, the relationship between the spatial distribution of variables, and the association of the variables of an area. ,and we gratefully acknowledge her support by a Southampton UniversityStudentship in High Performance Computing. John Robb and two anonymousreferees have kindly commented on earlier versions, and we haveattempted to incorporate their very helpful suggestions. The database collection was funded by a grant from the UK Arts andHumanities Research Board to Shennan and Steele, for the employment ofGkiasta. References AMMERMAN, A.J. & L. L. CAVALLI-SFORZA. 1971 Measuring the rateof spread of early farming in Europe. Man n.s. 6: 674-688. AMMERMAN, A.J. & L. L. CAVALLI-SFORZA. 1984. The NeolithicTransition and the Genetics of Populations in Europe. 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Marina Gkiasta (1), Thembi Russell (2), Stephen Shennan (1[dagger]) and James Steele (2) (1) Institute of Archaeology The Institute of Archaeology is an academic department of University College London (UCL), in the United Kingdom. The Institute is located in a separate building at the north end of Gordon Square, Bloomsbury. , 31-34 Gordon Square, London WC1H OPY OPY Overall Process Yield ,England. (2) Department of Archaeology, University of Southampton In the most recent RAE assessment (2001), it has the only engineering faculty in the country to receive the highest rating (5*) across all disciplines.[3] According to The Times Higher Education Supplement ,Highfield, Southampton SO17 1BJ, England. ([dagger]) (s.shennan@ucl.ac.uk) Received 9 January 2003; Accepted 9 January 2003; Revised 9 January2003.