Alternative route programs for certification in special education: program infrastructure instructional delivery, and participant characteristics.

Alternative route programs for certification in special education: program infrastructure instructional delivery, and participant characteristics. The need for high-quality teachers--particularly in suchhigh-demand areas as mathematics, science, and special education--hasbeen a major impetus for the emergence and growth of alternative routesto certification (AR). Indeed, the U.S. Department of Education (2002,2004) has proclaimed pro��claim?tr.v. pro��claimed, pro��claim��ing, pro��claims1. To announce officially and publicly; declare. See Synonyms at announce.2. repeatedly that AR programs, as opposed to thetraditional routes offered by colleges of education, are an effectivemeans of streamlining the process of certification to move teachers intothe classroom on a fast-track basis. In fact, recent federallegislation, including No Child Left Behind and IDEA, encourages theseapproaches to teacher preparation. These changing standards requirealternative route candidates to pass certification or licensure licensure(lī´snsh exams tobe highly qualified, but AR programs can alter, shorten, or waive To intentionally or voluntarily relinquish a known right or engage in conduct warranting an inference that a right has been surrendered.For example, an individual is said to waive the right to bring a tort action when he or she renounces the remedy provided by law for such entirely coursework courseworkNounwork done by a student and assessed as part of an educational courseNoun 1. coursework - work assigned to and done by a student during a course of study; usually it is evaluated as part of the student's in educational philosophy, pedagogy, and practiceteaching. In addition to the persistent shortage of qualified personnel andfederal government influence, two other factors have contributed to theproliferation proliferation/pro��lif��er��a��tion/ (pro-lif?er-a��shun) the reproduction or multiplication of similar forms, especially of cells.prolif��erativeprolif��erous pro��lif��er��a��tionn. of AR programs. One is the acute need formulticultural' personnel. Special education teachers arepredominantly pre��dom��i��nant?adj.1. Having greatest ascendancy, importance, influence, authority, or force. See Synonyms at dominant.2. White (86%), whereas the student population requiringspecial education is 32% diverse (Tyler, Yzquierdo, Lopez-Reyna, &Flippin, 2004). On average, AR programs have been more successful thantraditional programs in attracting African American African AmericanMulticulture A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa.See Race. and Hispanicparticipants into the field. The success of these programs is a resultof the tendency for alternative route program participants to reflectthe demographics The attributes of people in a particular geographic area. Used for marketing purposes, population, ethnic origins, religion, spoken language, income and age range are examples of demographic data. of the communities in which the programs are located(Humphrey & Weschler, 2005). Not surprisingly, many urban schooldistricts, routinely and desperately in need of large numbers ofcertified See certification. teachers, develop alternative routes in special education andother high-needs fields. They consider AR programs to be a more viablesource of supply of special education teachers both White and culturallyand linguistically diverse (CLD CLD CalledCLD CloudCLD ClearedCLD Chronic Lung DiseaseCLD Council for Learning DisabilitiesCLD CooledCLD Chronic Liver DiseaseCLD Clear Direction FlagCLD Certified LabVIEW DeveloperCLD Causal Loop Diagram )--than traditional programs. Not only isthe number of candidates greater, but there are also greater numbers ofopportunities to tailor program content and activities to address thechallenges specific to urban and minority schools (e.g., Rosenberg &Rock, 1994). The second additional factor is the strident sentiment from bothinside and outside the educational establishment that traditionalapproaches to teacher preparation are self-serving, over-regulatory,anachronistic a��nach��ro��nism?n.1. The representation of someone as existing or something as happening in other than chronological, proper, or historical order.2. , and ineffective. For the most part, those who advocatealternative methods of teacher preparation assert that little evidencelinks pedagogical ped��a��gog��ic? also ped��a��gog��i��caladj.1. Of, relating to, or characteristic of pedagogy.2. Characterized by pedantic formality: a haughty, pedagogic manner. training and teacher quality, and they claim that thetraits most associated with teacher effectiveness are knowledge ofcontent and verbal ability (Hess, Rotherham, & Walsh, 2004).Although this sentiment for reform has translated into a range of newmethods for providing teacher preparation (Hassel & Sherburne, 2004;Rosenberg & Sindelar, 1998), there is little information indicatinghow these novel approaches would develop teachers for students withdisabilities. When policy makers and those involved in general-education teacherpreparation contemplate the design and implementation of AR programs,special education is rarely on their radar screens. Indeed, most of whatlegislators often debate and what the education literature often reports(e.g., Goldhaber, 2004; Zeichner & Schulte, 2001) can best becharacterized char��ac��ter��ize?tr.v. character��ized, character��iz��ing, character��iz��es1. To describe the qualities or peculiarities of: characterized the warden as ruthless.2. as the "secondary content model," that is,programs that focus on content-specific pedagogy for individuals withsubject-area expertise. Still, what researchers know about AR programsin mathematics, science, and other content areas may have limitedapplication to special education teacher preparation, whereas universaldesign and pedagogy are more important than specific subject-areamethods (Rosenberg & Sindelar, 2001). This factor is critical whenconsidering the range of competencies (e.g., behavior management behavior managementPsychology Any nonpharmacologic maneuver–eg contingency reinforcement–that is intended to correct behavioral problems in a child with a mental disorder–eg, ADHD. See Attention-deficit-hyperactivity syndrome. , socialskills instruction, and content enhancements) required of educators whodeliver high-quality, comprehensive educational programs to studentswith the range of special needs that students with exceptionalitiesexhibit (e.g., Council for Exceptional Children, 2003; Ned, Cessna,Borock, & Bechard, 2003; Rosenberg, Sindelar, & Hardman, 2004). AR programs are proliferating Proliferating is the multiplication of a certain thing. Often it is used as a biological term to describe the increase of cells due to cell division.Look under proliferate or proliferation for more details. at a rapid rate (Feistritzer, Haar,Hobar, & Scullion scul��lion?n.A servant employed to do menial tasks in a kitchen.[Middle English sculyon, probably from Old French escouvillon, dishcloth, diminutive of escouve, , 2005), and researchers know little about therange of program offerings in the extreme shortage area of specialeducation. The stakes remain high because teacher certification, whichmany regard as a major component of teacher quality, is associated withpublic confidence in the schools. However, the literature does notinclude reports about most AR programs, and researchers know littleabout the nature and extent of these programs. In this study, weidentified 235 AR programs in 35 states and the District of Columbia District of Columbia,federal district (2000 pop. 572,059, a 5.7% decrease in population since the 1990 census), 69 sq mi (179 sq km), on the east bank of the Potomac River, coextensive with the city of Washington, D.C. (the capital of the United States). (wedid not find evidence of special-education AR programs in 15 states);101 programs in 25 states and the District of Columbia responded to thesurvey. As a result of the magnitude of the response, we know more aboutthe scope of AR programs and about the design and delivery of theseprograms, as well as the characteristics of participants recruited. Ourpurpose, in partnership with the National Clearinghouse for Professionsin Special Education (NCPSE NCPSE National Clearinghouse for Professions in Special Education ), was to develop a database that lists anddescribes AR offerings in all states that have such programs.Specifically, we were interested in the following: * How the prevalence of AR programs in individual states relates tothe shortage of special education teachers within those states. * The design and administration of such programs. * The length and "intensity of programs. * Program characteristics, such as admission requirements, modes ofinstructional delivery, and completion rates. * The experiences and demographic composition of AR programparticipants. METHODOLOGY The methodology for the study involved developing a survey,generating a comprehensive listing of alternative programs, andadministering the survey to AR program directors. DEVELOPING THE SURVEY Using resources from the available literature on AR programs (e.g.,Hawley, 1992; Hillkirk, 2000; Rosenberg & Sindelar, 2001; Zeichner& Schulte, 2001) as well as our own experiences in designing andstudying teacher programs, we identified four areas believed todifferentiate among AR programs, including (a) program infrastructure,(b) program length and intensity, (c) specific program features, and (d)participant demographics. (For a copy of the full survey; contact thefirst author.) Table 1 presents descriptions of these areas, the scopeof the questions asked, and the number of items developed for each area. We conducted survey development and validation See validate. validation - The stage in the software life-cycle at the end of the development process where software is evaluated to ensure that it complies with the requirements. in several steps.First, we generated items for a telephone survey by using programinfrastructure, program length and intensity, specific program features,and participant demographics as referents. We then compiled the itemsinto a preliminary survey draft and circulated this draft among membersof the research team, as well as associates of team members. Theseindividuals rated each item for its face validity face validity (fāsˑ v·liˑ·di·tē),n as well as its abilityto assess the construct of the survey area. We used a 4-point scale toassess correspondence to the area and removed items that fell below amean score of 3.25 or edited them for clarity. Team members employed asimilar process to assess the relative importance of each item andgenerated additional items to include in the final survey. Team membersalso attempted to ensure that survey respondents In the context of marketing research, a representative sample drawn from a larger population of people from whom information is collected and used to develop or confirm marketing strategy. would have cleardefinitions of terms and would be able to provide explanations andnarrative responses that did not fit existing categories. IDENTIFYING AR PROGRAMS IN SPECIAL EDUCATION Uncovering existing special education AR programs throughout thenation required persistence (1) In a CRT, the time a phosphor dot remains illuminated after being energized. Long-persistence phosphors reduce flicker, but generate ghost-like images that linger on screen for a fraction of a second. and multiple search methods. Initially, weconsulted publications (e.g., Feistritzer & Chester, 2001) thatspecialize spe��cial��izev.1. To limit one's profession to a particular specialty or subject area for study, research, or treatment.2. To adapt to a particular function or environment. in listing AR teacher preparation programs. However, we foundmost AR programs by contacting the special education andcertification/licensure offices within state departments of education.We completed this process by using both traditional mail and electronicmail. Another method used in the identification process was to searcheach state's university and college education department Web sitefor information indicating whether it provided AR special educationprograms. If such information existed, NCPSE contacted a member of thatdepartment by e-mail or by telephone to seek information regarding theseprograms. The final method used in seeking programs was follow-upresearch on programs revealed at conferences or by educators in thefield. NCPSE staff placed follow-up telephone calls to each statedepartment of education to ensure that we had included all knownprograms. During all contacts, we defined AR programs as preparationroutes that provided access to a teacher credential credentialverb To determine or verify titles, qualifications, documents, completion of required training, and continuing education, in those persons who function in a professional or official capacity–eg, ER physician, neurosurgeon, etc. Cf Credentials. and thatcircumvented conventional college and university preparation programs(Hawley, 1992). Before administering the survey, we only had limitedinformation (e.g., location and primary program sponsor) about theidentified programs, so we were unable to make meaningful comparisonsbetween responding and nonresponding programs. ADMINISTERING THE SURVEY Trained telephone interviewers at the University of Florida'sBureau of Economic Business Research (BEBR BEBR Bureau of Economic and Business Research (University of Florida)) Telephone Survey Labconducted the survey. Interviewers entered program directors'responses contemporaneously con��tem��po��ra��ne��ous?adj.Originating, existing, or happening during the same period of time: the contemporaneous reigns of two monarchs.See Synonyms at contemporary. , a process facilitated by thequestionnaire's use of multiple-choice and numeric numericsee numerical.numeric clustersee ten-key pad. formats. Entrieswere stored automatically in memory; and preprogrammed follow-upquestions, when appropriate, were displayed. However, because of theunique nature of AR programs, many items included a text box thatallowed for responses not provided in the survey, as well as statementsthat could qualify certain responses. BEBR collected survey data fromMarch until September Until September is a 1984 romantic drama set in France. It stars Karen Allen as an American tourist in Paris who falls in love with a married Frenchman (Thierry Lhermitte). External links 2003. BEBR standard procedure is to use a computerprogram to call potential respondents repeatedly when there is noanswer, the line is busy, or respondents are unavailable to talk (inwhich case, BEBR schedules a follow-up call); and BEBR maintains acareful log of contacts. The interviews took from 30 to 45 min tocomplete, and BEBR called respondents back if they needed additionaltime to think about the items or if they had other matters thatconflicted with the interview. For each item, BEBR generated frequencydistributions and two lists, one for other responses and one fortext-box comments. RESULTS RESPONDENTS TO SURVEY: GENERAL INFORMATION We identified a total of 235 AR programs in special education, ofwhich 101 program directors responded to the survey. The 235 programswere located in 35 states and Washington, DC, with California (32.8%)and Texas (16.6%) accounting for the largest proportion of programs. Theresponses from 101 of the 235 programs represented a 42.9% responserate. The 101 programs that responded were in 25 states and Washington,DC. Of these programs, 51, or 50.5%, were in four states: 17 (16.8%) inTexas, 16 (15.8%) in California, 10 (9.9%) in Georgia, and 8 (7.9%) inLouisiana. To determine the association between the prevalence of AR programsin individual states and the shortage of special educators within thosestates, we correlated cor��re��late?v. cor��re��lat��ed, cor��re��lat��ing, cor��re��latesv.tr.1. To put or bring into causal, complementary, parallel, or reciprocal relation.2. the number of teachers who were not fullycertified (U.S. Department of Education, 2005) with the number of ARprograms. The resulting correlation, .64, was significant at the .01level. Nationally, the overall percentage of special education teacherswho are not fully certified has averaged 12.5%. In the 15 states thatlacked identified AR programs, the average percent-age of specialeducation teachers who were not fully certified was 5.8%. In the fourstates with the highest number of AR programs, the average percentage ofteachers not fully certified was 22.6%. We also noted that many of the AR programs have been developedwithin the past few years. Of the 98 responding programs, 39.8% had beenin operation for 3 years or less, and 51% had been in operation for 5years or less. (Although we surveyed 101 programs, those interviewed didnot always respond to each item. Throughout the results section, weindicate the number of participants who responded to the individualitems.) Approximately 44% of the program directors indicated that theirprograms were operating at enrollment capacity, 17% reported being abovecapacity, and approximately 39% indicated that they were below capacity.Reasons for the shortfalls included program entry requirements,insufficient funding, and lack of awareness about the program. AREA 1: PROGRAM INFRASTRUCTURE Regarding program infrastructure, we focused on funding, groupstargeted by funding, groups involved in the design of the program, theagency that recommends that licenses be issued, and teaching standards(see Table 2). Program Funding. The survey addressed several items related toprogram funding. First, the survey asked respondents to note allagencies responsible for funding their programs: 57.1% of respondentsmentioned the state education agency (SEA) as the current fundingsource, 52.9% mentioned institutions of higher education (IHEs), 39.8%mentioned the local education agency (LEA LEA LeagueLEA Local Education Authority (UK)LEA Local Education AgencyLEA Langues ��trang��res Appliqu��es (France)LEA Law Enforcement AgencyLEA Load Effective Address ), and 31.6% mentioned thefederal government. Among the most common funding patterns were localeducation agency--state education agency (LEA--SEA) and IHE--SEApartnerships, accounting for 20.7% each. IHE--SEA--LEA fundingpartnerships accounted for 14.6% of the respondents. The percentage ofrespondents that reported that tuition For tuition fees in the United Kingdom, see .Tuition means instruction, teaching or a fee charged for educational instruction especially at a formal institution of learning or by a private tutor usually in the form of one-to-one tuition. was the current funding sourcewas 10.2%. Approximately 32% of the respondents indicated that a federalgrant assisted in the start-up of the program and that the programtargeted specific groups for recruitment. Groups Targeted by Funding. The 33 programs that used funding forspecific groups were interested in recruiting a diverse group ofparticipants: 45.5% of the respondents targeted both African Americansand Hispanics, 42.4% targeted Native Americans, and 39.4% targetedAsian/Pacific Islanders Islanders may refer to: New York Islanders, a ice hockey team based in Uniondale, New York that plays on the National Hockey League (NHL). Puerto Rico Islanders, a Puerto Rican soccer team in the USL First Division, that currently play their home games at Juan Ramon . The programs targeted retired persons moreoften than individuals with any other career status (57.6% ofrespondents), 48.5% of respondents targeted general educators andmid-career changers ''For the species of shapechangers in the Culture novels, see Changers (The Culture)The Changers are a fictional group of anti-hero published by Wildstorm an imprint of DC Comics. , 36.4% targeted recent bachelor's degreerecipients, 30.3% targeted military service personnel, and 27.3%targeted paraeducators. Program Design. In considering program design, we were interestedin identifying stakeholders StakeholdersAll parties that have an interest, financial or otherwise, in a firm-stockholders, creditors, bondholders, employees, customers, management, the community, and the government. who played an active role in developing theAR program. The survey first asked respondents to note all agenciesprimarily responsible for the design of the program: 75.8% of therespondents reported that IHEs were the primary program designer, 71.7%reported that SEAs were responsible for program design, andapproximately half the respondents (48.5%) indicated that LEAs wereresponsible for program design. Second, we were interested indetermining the number of responding programs in which one agency wasprimarily responsible for the design of the program and in determiningthe extent and nature of design partnerships. Respondents mentioned theIHE--LEA--SEA collaboration most often, (approximately one third of therespondents), followed by IHE-SEA collaboration, with 22.6% of therespondents. Relatively few of the respondents engaged in program designalone; IHEs, SEAs, and LEAs, by themselves, accounted for 12.9%, 12.9%,and 3.2%, respectively, of the responses. Agency Recommending Issuance of License. Although most programsshared design input, one lead agency made recommendations to the statethat a license be issued. Of the 99 programs responding, 67% of therespondents identified IHEs as the lead agency; SEAs recommended thatlicenses be granted in 16.2% of the programs, and LEAs recommended thatlicenses be granted in 14.1% of the programs. Teaching Standards. Most respondents, 87.8%, indicated that programdesigners used nationally recognized professional teaching standards todevelop their program. Of the 86 respondent In Equity practice, the party who answers a bill or other proceeding in equity. The party against whom an appeal or motion, an application for a court order, is instituted and who is required to answer in order to protect his or her interests. who used standards, 82.5%reported the use of CEC (Central Electronic Complex) The set of hardware that defines a mainframe, which includes the CPU(s), memory, channels, controllers and power supplies included in the box. Some CECs, such as IBM's Multiprise 2000 and 3000, include data storage devices as well. professional standards in designing the program,36% used the Interstate in��ter��state?adj.Involving, existing between, or connecting two or more states.n.One of a system of highways extending between the major cities of the 48 contiguous United States.Noun 1. New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium(INTASC INTASC Interstate New Teachers Assessment and Support Consortium ), and 34.8% used the National Board for Professional TeachingStandards (NBPTS NBPTS National Board for Professional Teaching Standards ). A considerable proportion of respondents (43%)employed other standards in program design. For the most part, thesestandards were individual state standards. Although many respondentsreported the use of professional standards in designing their programs,approximately one half (52.3%) of the respondents reported that theirprograms had received CEC/NCATE approval. AREA II: PROGRAM LENGTH AND INTENSITY Table 3 summarizes data associated with program length andintensity. Central to assessing program length and intensity wasdetermining whether the program required full-time teaching in schoolsand the length of the preparation that participants received beforeassuming full classroom teaching responsibilities. We were alsointerested in the actual length of the training program, so we assessedprogram duration by using a full professional teaching credential A United States teaching credential is a basic multiple or single subject credential obtained upon completion of a bachelor's degree and prescribed professional education requirements. as theend point. Of the 101 respondents, 84.2% reported that their programrequires full-time teaching in school, and 85.8% used university creditsas an index of progress. Approximately one half of the credit-earningprograms were part-time programs (less than 11 credits per semester se��mes��ter?n.One of two divisions of 15 to 18 weeks each of an academic year.[German, from Latin (cursus) s ),and the remainder were full-time programs. In those programs that required full-time teaching, 14.5% ofteachers received no training before beginning teachingresponsibilities. Approximately one half of the respondents, 51.9%,reported that participants received 3 months or less of training beforeassuming teaching responsibilities, and approximately two thirds (67.5%)required 6 months or less. Of the 93 programs responding, approximately13% required 10 to 12 months of participation, and approximately onethird (31.2%) of the programs awarded full licensure in 18 months orless. The largest number of respondents (approximately 34.4%) reportedthat the program required 24 months of program participation. To develop a factor that would reflect critical aspects associatedwith fast-track preparation for special education teachers, we combinedtwo measures: the length of preparation, in months, that programparticipants receive before assuming classroom (teaching)responsibilities while enrolled in the program; and the length of timethat participants are in the program, in months, before they receive thefull professional teaching license for which the program prepares them.We characterized 3 months or less for entry into the classroom as beinga brief amount of preparation time before assuming classroomresponsibilities and considered 4 months or more as an extended amountof time. Regarding length of time in a program before receiving a fullprofessional license, we characterized 18 months or less as a briefamount of time and viewed programs that required more than 18 months asextended. Data on these two variables combined were available for 80 ofthe programs: 30% of the programs (n = 24) were extended in both entryto the classroom and in program length; 18.7% (n = 15) were extended inclassroom entry but brief in program length; 40% of the programs (n =32) were brief in classroom entry and extended in program length; and11.3% (n = 9) of the programs were fast track, that is, brief for bothclassroom entry and program length. AREA III: PROGRAM CHARACTERISTICS In considering program characteristics, we asked program directorsabout the requirements for admission and program selectivity selectivity/se��lec��tiv��i��ty/ (se-lek-tiv��i-te) in pharmacology, the degree to which a dose of a drug produces the desired effect in relation to adverse effects. selectivity1. , types ofdegrees and licenses granted by the program, modes of instructionaldelivery and school-based mentorship, financial support, and programcompletion rates. Table 4 summarizes these data. Admission and Selectivity. We asked respondents to identify allrequirements for entry into the AR program. Most programs requiredparticipants to have a minimum GPA GPAabbr.grade point averageNoun 1. GPA - a measure of a student's academic achievement at a college or university; calculated by dividing the total number of grade points received by the total number attempted (86.1%) and a bachelor's degree(87.1%). Two thirds to three fourths of the programs required aninterview (68.3%), a standardized test (70.3%), and letters ofrecommendation (74.3%). Respondents reported that 42.3% of the programsaccepted 81% to 100% of their applicants, and an additional one third(33.3%) accepted 61% to 80% of applicants. However, when asked about theselectivity of their programs, 30.7% of the respondents characterizedtheir programs as being very selective, 62.4% viewed their programs asselective, and only 6.3% indicated that their programs were notselective. Thus, although most respondents (93.7%) view their programsas selective, more than 42.3% accept between 81% and 100% of allapplicants. Completion. Respondents estimated the number and percentage ofprogram completers during a typical year. Most programs tend to have asizable siz��a��blealso size��a��ble ?adj.Of considerable size; fairly large.siza��ble��ness n. number of yearly program completers, with 40.6% of respondentsindicating that 31 or more participants finish their program. A rathersmall percentage (13.2%) of respondents indicated that 10 or fewerpersons complete their programs each year. Approximately two thirdsreported that between 90% and 100% of their participants completed theprogram in the previous year; only 12% of the programs had a completionrate of less than 75%. Degrees, Licenses, and Age and Grade Emphases. Although 86% ofrespondents repotted that participants need a bachelor's degree toenter their program, only 32.7% of the 101 responders indicated thatparticipants receive a degree after completing the program. Manyprograms (47.5%) do not offer a degree, and approximately 20% of theprograms provide an option for earning a degree. Of those that offer adegree, 61% offer only a graduate degree, 13.8% offer an undergraduatedegree “First degree” redirects here. For the BBC television series, see First Degree.An undergraduate degree (sometimes called a first degree or simply a degree , and 25% offer both graduate and undergraduate degrees. The programs offered a broad range of license types. When asked tonote all the options that applied to their programs, 90.1% ofrespondents reported that their program offers an initial license, 42.6%reported that their program offers an add-on license to a previouslyearned license, and approximately 25% noted that their programs providean opportunity to earn a dual or blended license. Another 25% of therespondents indicated that they provided information specific to thelanguage of their state regulations (e.g., Class A, probationary, orcredential rather than license). Our variable data regarding age and grade levels that the ARprograms address are consistent with the expansive age requirementstypical of most state's certification requirements (see Geiger,Crutchfield, & Mainzer, 2003). Of the 96 respondents, 50% indicatedthat their programs address early childhood through secondary specialeducation and 41.6% of responding programs reported that their licensescover elementary/secondary special education. Only 8.3% indicated thattheir programs limited their emphasis to a particular age or gradegroup. Modes of Instructional Delivery and Mentorship. We askedrespondents to identify all modes of instructional delivery that theirprogram employed. Most programs included supervised su��per��vise?tr.v. su��per��vised, su��per��vis��ing, su��per��vis��esTo have the charge and direction of; superintend.[Middle English *supervisen, from Medieval Latin fieldwork field��work?n.1. A temporary military fortification erected in the field.2. Work done or firsthand observations made in the field as opposed to that done or observed in a controlled environment.3. (94%) anduniversity or college-based coursework (89%); 68% of the programsemployed distance learning; and 58% used district-based staffdevelopment. Other methods, identified by 9% of the programs, includedsummer institutes and independent studies. As the primary location of the instruction, IHEs accounted for thelargest proportion, 43.9%, among the respondents. Approximately 30%reported that the program used a combination of IHE IHE Integrating the Healthcare EnterpriseIHE Institutions of Higher EducationIHE International Institute for Infrastructural, Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering (historical acronym only, replaced by: IHE Delft, the Foundation)and LEA locations,and 13.3% reported that the LEA alone housed instructional efforts. Ofthe 13% who reported another location, most were regional resource orservice centers for several states. Many programs (90.1%) reported thattheir AR programs include a mentorship component. We asked respondentsto identify all types of mentorship and supervision that their programsprovided. Most respondents, 91.1%, indicated that their program providedmentoring by the LEA, and 57.4% indicated that a university providedmentoring. Most of the 21.8% who reported another type of mentoringcited supervision options emanating from regional resource centers. Accommodations for Individuals With Disabilities and FinancialSupport. Virtually all the respondents (99%) reported that their ARprograms provide accommodations for those with disabilities. Theseaccommodations include extra time for examinations and assignments, aswell as the provision of adaptive technologies. Approximately 90% of the respondents indicated that their programsprovide one or more kinds of financial assistance for programparticipants, and approximately one half of the respondents (53.9%)indicated that the program furnishes tuition assistance. Approximately40% provide salary support, and 31.5% provide some type of stipend sti��pend?n.A fixed and regular payment, such as a salary for services rendered or an allowance.[Middle English stipendie, from Old French, from Latin st . Withmany programs requiring full-time teaching in schools, it is likely thatcooperating school districts are paying salaries. Other types of supportthat the respondents reported include eligibility for financial aid inthe forms of loans, variable yet undefined state grants, and performancebonuses on program completion. AREA IV: PARTICIPANT DEMOGRAPHICS In addressing the area of participant demographics, we wereinterested in the demographic composition of the responding programs, aswell as the experience of program participants before program entry.Table 5 summarizes the data. Gender and Age. Forty percent of the respondents indicated thattheir program enrolled a class that consisted of 20% men; approximatelythree fourths of the respondents indicated that their programs included30% or fewer males. The average percentage of females (75.5%) in ARprograms outnumbered Outnumbered is a British sitcom that aired on BBC One in 2007.[1] It stars Hugh Dennis and Claire Skinner as a mother and father who are outnumbered by their three children. by three to one the average percentage of males(24.5%). Aggregating the age data indicated that more than one half(52.4%) of the participants in the responding programs were more than 31years old; 26.4% of the participants ranged from 25 to 30; and in 21.2%of the programs, the average age ranged from 20 to 24. Race. In the 33 programs that had funding to recruit specificgroups of individuals, 45% of respondents indicated that they wereseeking African American or Hispanic participants, 42% indicated theywere seeking Native Americans, and 39% indicated that they were seekingAsians and Pacific Islanders. The largest percentage of studentsactually participating in the programs were White (70.5%); AfricanAmerican students represented 16.2% of participants, and Hispanicstudents represented 10.2%. Approximately one half of the programs(50.6%) reported that 80% to 100% of their participants were White;42.5% of the programs reported having between 0% and 5% AfricanAmericans (14.5% reported having none), and 60% of the programs reportedhaving between 0% and 5% Hispanic students (31.3% reported having none).Approximately 25% of the programs reported enrollments that includedmore than 20% African American participants, and 15% reported that theirenrollments included more than 15% Hispanic participants. Involvement ofother racial groups was quite limited. Participant Experience Before Program Entry. We asked respondentsabout students' career experiences before they entered AR programs.Specifically, we were interested in the proportion of programparticipants who were retired, retired from military service, recentrecipients of bachelor's degrees, career changers, generaleducators, and. paraprofessionals. The average percentage of retirees inprograms was small (2.7%); approximately 62% of the respondentsindicated that their programs included no retirees. At the upper end,only 7.49% of the programs reported having a percentage of retireesranging from 13% to 15%. The average percentage of participants who wereretired from military service was also quite small (3.6%); approximatelyone half of the respondents indicated that no participants had retiredfrom military service; 82% reported 5% or less. The average proportion of AR program participants who had beenrecent recipients of bachelor's degrees (that is, within theprevious 12 months) was quite sizable (28.7%). Most respondents reportedthat 1% to 10% of their program's participants were recentrecipients of bachelor's degrees, yet 17.3% of the respondentsindicated that 70% to 100% of their program's participants wererecent college graduates. The average proportion of AR participantsidentified as midcareer changers was 45.9%. Approximately 26.6% of therespondents indicated that their programs consisted of between 71% and100% midcareer changers; 10.1% of the respondents indicated that theprogram had no career changers. The average proportion of AR program participants identified asgeneral educators was a considerable 22.8%. Although a large proportionof respondents, 40%, reported that their program had no generaleducators, approximately 15% of the respondents indicated that theirprograms included between 61% and 100% general educators. Finally, theaverage proportion of AR special education students identified asparaeducators was 11.4%. Many respondents (45.1%) reported that theirprograms had no paraeducators, and 39% of the respondents indicated thattheir programs included between 1% and 20% paraeducators. No respondentsreported that their programs were designed exclusively forparaeducators. DISCUSSION The results of this study confirm that a large number ofstakeholders are designing and implementing a variety of alternativespecial education teacher training programs. Previous efforts (Rosenberg& Sindelar, 2001, 2005) to define the essential elements of ARprograms were reviews of a very limited literature. Those efforts led tothe conclusion that AR programs can be effective when they meet certainprogrammatic pro��gram��mat��ic?adj.1. Of, relating to, or having a program.2. Following an overall plan or schedule: a step-by-step, programmatic approach to problem solving.3. condition. In analyzing the data from the current study, several key themesemerged. First, the shortage of certified special educators appears tobe the impetus for the proliferation of AR programs. Second, although adefining characteristic of such programs is access to a teachingcredential that circumvents conventional university preparation, IHEsare very much involved in the AR enterprise. Third, although mostprograms require fulltime teaching, the length of preparation andsupport vary greatly. Finally, the characteristics of the participantsrecruited into programs raise a number of issues that question whetherthe proliferation of AR programs in special education, as currentlydesigned, is actually increasing the supply of certified and (in theaftermath of the reauthorized IDEA of 2004) highly qualified specialeducation teachers. AR PROGRAMS AND THE SHORTAGE OF SPECIAL EDUCATORS Three major factors have contributed to the rapid growth of ARprograms: the persistent shortage of certified personnel, the acute needfor teachers from CLD backgrounds, and sentiment from political actiongroups (and the U.S. Department of Education) that traditionalapproaches to teacher education are flawed flaw?1?n.1. An imperfection, often concealed, that impairs soundness: a flaw in the crystal that caused it to shatter.See Synonyms at blemish.2. and require streamlining toensure that rigid programs do not discourage those who wish to becometeachers (Hardman & Muldur, 2003; Rosenberg & Sindelar, 2001;Rosenberg et al., 2004). In spite of in opposition to all efforts of; in defiance or contempt of; notwithstanding.See also: Spite the intense and often vitriolicrhetoric surrounding the shortcomings of conventional teacherpreparation (e.g., Hess et al., 2004; Thomas B. Fordham Foundation,1999), such criticism is rarely evident in discussions of specialeducation teacher development. There is little argument that studentswho need special education require teachers with a wide range ofspecialized spe��cial��ize?v. spe��cial��ized, spe��cial��iz��ing, spe��cial��iz��esv.intr.1. To pursue a special activity, occupation, or field of study.2. skills. In fact, many arguments surrounding what constitutesa highly qualified special education teacher involve the need forprofessionals who have content area expertise and the ability to provideaccommodations for learning and behavioral support. Our data provide additional evidence that the driving force behindthe proliferation of special education AR programs is the acute shortageof certified and highly qualified special education teachers.Specifically, in our comparison of states with high numbers of ARprograms and those that lack any programs, sharp differences occurred inthe percentages of uncertified un��cer��ti��fied?adj.Not officially verified, guaranteed, or registered; not certified: an uncertified teacher.Adj. 1. special education teachers. Although wecannot assert causality causality,in philosophy, the relationship between cause and effect. A distinction is often made between a cause that produces something new (e.g., a moth from a caterpillar) and one that produces a change in an existing substance (e.g. in this relationship, a link clearly existsbetween the severity of the shortage of certified special educators andthe number of AR programs in individual states, One implication of thesedata is that the design of AR programs in states with severe shortagesmust ensure that candidates persist in Verb 1. persist in - do something repeatedly and showing no intention to stop; "We continued our research into the cause of the illness"; "The landlord persists in asking us to move"continue their new careers. Effective ARprograms are extended, rigorous, and programmatic; fast-track programswith limited support have high attrition AttritionThe reduction in staff and employees in a company through normal means, such as retirement and resignation. This is natural in any business and industry.Notes: (Darling-Hammond, 1999;Rosenberg & Sindelar, 2001). Because all AR programs are not createdequally, states with large numbers of such programs should activelymonitor the nature and extent of the programs' training activitiesand should ensure that only programs that result in high-qualityteachers who persist over time receive approval and funding. Furthermore, our findings regarding the diversity of participantsin special education AR programs are consistent with findings fromresearch on general and special education (e.g., Humphrey &Weschler, 2005; Tyler et al., 2004). Specifically, on average, theproportion of African American and Hispanic participants in AR programsexceeds their representation in traditional programs. In our data, thisdifference was attributable to a relatively small subset A group of commands or functions that do not include all the capabilities of the original specification. Software or hardware components designed for the subset will also work with the original. of AR programsthat attracted highly diverse participant pools. These special educationprograms were often in highly diverse communities (as Humphrey andWeschler concluded about the general education programs that theystudied). Thus, neither research about general education nor researchabout special education has identified inherent differences betweenalternative and traditional preparation beyond the demographics of thepopulations from which they draw participants--that might account forthe relative success of alternative preparation in attracting diverseparticipant pools. IHE INVOLVEMENT IN AR PROGRAMS In recent years, a considerable amount of criticism has focused onhow IHEs develop teachers (and how long it takes), and correspondingcalls have requested that states break the monopoly of universities andconsider empowering approved multiple providers for teacher preparation(e.g., Hassel & Sherburne, 2004). Rosenberg and Sindelar (1998)expressed concern that speed, convenience, and practicality are theprimary methods used to entice students to change careers in this newmarketplace. An even greater concern was the insidious insidious/in��sid��i��ous/ (-sid��e-us) coming on stealthily; of gradual and subtle development. in��sid��i��ousadj.Being a disease that progresses with few or no symptoms to indicate its gravity. effect thatprivate-sector, for-profit institutions, such as the University ofPhoenix, might have on mainstream providers of teacher preparation. Manyfeared that bottom-line economic factors (i.e., recruiting students andgenerating credit-hour enrollments) would influence the design,implementation, and viability of preparation programs. Instead of being forced out of the teacher-preparation marketplace,traditional IHEs have responded to LEA concerns about shortages ofspecial education teachers and have been instrumental in designing anddelivering either some or all of the critical components of AR programs.In fact, mainstream IHEs were primarily responsible for the design of76% of the programs that we surveyed; 89% of the programs useduniversity coursework, with 73% of the programs employing IHEs as thevenues for instruction. In 64.5% of the programs, IHEs were inpartnerships with either or both LEAs and SEAs. Because most of theprograms surveyed required classroom teaching, very few IHE programswere independent of substantive SEA or LEA involvement. Why are IHEs so active in the AR marketplace? Rotherham and Mead(2004) suggest that IHEs embrace AR programs because such programsprovide universities with the opportunity to diversify diversifyTo acquire a variety of assets that do not tend to change in value at the same time. To diversify a securities portfolio is to purchase different types of securities in different companies in unrelated industries. theirconsiderable financial teacher education portfolio. With more than200,000 undergraduate and graduate completers each year, teacherpreparation programs nationally bring in more than $6.1 billion intuition annually. Because of their low average faculty costs and anincreasing reliance on adjunct adjunct (aj´ungkt),n a drug or other substance that serves a supplemental purpose in therapy.adjunctinstructors, teacher preparation programsare often seen as cash cows for their universities. As demand fortraditional teacher preparation shrinks--among those who are teachingstudents with special education needs and are uncredentialed un��cre��den��tialed?abbr.Not having proper credentials: "the ministrations of uncredentialed healers"James S. Gordon., 24% arebypassing traditional university and college programs (Connelly,2003)--AR programs represent an effective means for mainstreamuniversities to expand their offerings into the growing marketplace ofnontraditional adult learners with little additional capitalexpenditure. Nonetheless, many questions remain regarding the transformation ofuniversity programs for preparing special education teachers. Forexample, how will an institution's offering of multiple options forpreparing special education teachers fare in the real world ofpractically minded students? Will the proliferation of AR programsresult in the eventual extinction extinction,in biology, disappearance of species of living organisms. Extinction occurs as a result of changed conditions to which the species is not suited. of comprehensive and pedagogically ped��a��gog��ic? also ped��a��gog��i��caladj.1. Of, relating to, or characteristic of pedagogy.2. Characterized by pedantic formality: a haughty, pedagogic manner. advanced traditional programs in the marketplace? Will the proliferationof AR programs reduce the shortage of highly qualified special educationteachers? The authors' experiences have indicated that teachercandidates often take the path of least resistance Noun 1. path of least resistance - the easiest way; "In marrying him she simply took the path of least resistance"line of least resistancefashion - characteristic or habitual practice to obtain a teachingcredential. Credentialism cre��den��tial��ism?n.Overemphasis on diplomas or degrees in giving jobs or conferring social status: "Neo-liberalism made useful points in its critique of vested interests, of bureaucratic follies rather than learning is a dominant theme inour changing academic marketplace, and many who are new to the field andare allowed to merely meet reduced standards may do just that (Rosenberg& Sindelar, 1998; Zemsky, 1993). IHEs must face the new fiscalrealities of the academic marketplace, that is, students want rapid andconvenient access to needed requirements and the competition fromnontraditional vendors of teacher preparation is considerable.Therefore, IHEs, the onetime mainstream provider of teacher education,may be willing to alter their offerings to maintain their place in theprocess. With multiple user-friendly paths to certification and almostimmediate employment available in certain public schools, we must becareful that all approved programs include rigorous teacher educationactivities. LENGTH OF PREPARATION AND SUPPORT Because the shortage of certified--and now highly qualified specialeducation teachers is at a chronic crisis level, AR programs naturallyseek to place qualified personnel in classrooms as quickly as possible.For the most part, respondents to our survey are doing just that--84% ofthe 101 programs require full-time teaching in schools. However,considerable variation exists in the amount of preparation thatcandidates receive before assuming classroom responsibilities and theamount of support that they receive throughout their program. Inapproximately one half, or 51.9%, of the programs that require full-timeteaching, candidates receive 3 months or less of training beforeentering the classroom as the teacher of record, and 14.5% of theprograms require no training at all. Although we know few specificsabout the intensity of training during these periods, a major share ofpreparation necessary for success in the classroom clearly occurs whileteacher candidates are on the job. Consequently, we assessed the amountof time that candidates were required to participate in the AR programsbefore receiving certification. Most programs require an ample amount oftime, with approximately two thirds of the programs, 68.8%, requiring 18months or more of participation in program activities. Placing a novice teacher with limited training in a classroom ofchallenging and needy need��y?adj. need��i��er, need��i��est1. Being in need; impoverished. See Synonyms at poor.2. Wanting or needing affection, attention, or reassurance, especially to an excessive degree. students with disabilities is a high-riskendeavor. The knowledge and skill base recommended for entry-levelteachers of students with disabilities is considerable and includescompetence in assessing learning differences, instructional planning,implementing research-based instructional strategies, and professionaland ethical practice, as well as collaboration with families and fellowservice providers (CEC, 2003). However, complementing the time in theclassroom with substantive standards-based training and effectivesupport minimizes the level of risk involved with an inexperienced in��ex��pe��ri��ence?n.1. Lack of experience.2. Lack of the knowledge gained from experience.in teacher. To assess the extent that programs were providing training andsupport for on-the-job AR programs, we developed a factor that combinedlength of preparation before assuming teaching responsibilities andlength of time participating in program activities. Most programsreflected a desire to provide adequate support for the AR candidates. Ofthe 80 programs that responded to the two items, 30% were extended forboth entry to the classroom and for required program participation--morethan 3 months of time before assuming teaching responsibilities andcompletion of a program that lasted more than 18 months; and 40% of theprograms were fast in entry to the classroom (3 months or less) but hadextended program length. Of those with limited program length (that is,less than 18 months), 18.7% were extended in entry to classroom teachingand 11.7% were fast. We believe that this finding is a generally positive one.Regardless of the amount of time before participants assume fullteaching responsibilities, most AR programs have a duration of more than18 months. Since almost all the programs provide mentoring andsupervision (more than 90% reported providing mentorship and supervisedfieldwork) and a broad range of instructional activities, many novicespecial educators in AR programs are being educated and supported.However, we remain concerned that a significant proportion of programs,11.7%, or one in every eight programs, include a fast track to theclassroom and have limited program length. Such programs may arguably ar��gu��a��ble?adj.1. Open to argument: an arguable question, still unresolved.2. That can be argued plausibly; defensible in argument: three arguable points of law. beappropriate for certified elementary educators or for developingsecondary-level content-area teachers who are proficient pro��fi��cient?adj.Having or marked by an advanced degree of competence, as in an art, vocation, profession, or branch of learning.n.An expert; an adept. in their areasof content but need basic pedagogical skills. However, in this era ofeducational accountability, newly prepared special education teachersare responsible for increasing the performance of their students, achallenge that requires enhanced instructional skills; expertise indiagnosing and assessing learning problems, instructional strategies forinefficient learners, and behavior management; and myriad skills incollaboration, consultation, and advocacy. Fortunately, most AR programsare making the effort to deliver supportive programs that include enoughtime to promote successful induction induction, in electricity and magnetisminduction,in electricity and magnetism, common name for three distinct phenomena.Electromagnetic induction to the profession. Moreover, byproviding on-the-job training as part of this support, AR programs arereducing the opportunity costs Opportunity costsThe difference in the actual performance of a particular investment and some other desired investment adjusted for fixed costs and execution costs. It often refers to the most valuable alternative that is given up. associated with professional developmentand induction, making the programs both instructionally supportive andfinancially attractive. PARTICIPANTS IN AR PROGRAMS In addition to circumventing traditional university methods ofteacher preparation and facilitating the entry of members ofunderrepresented un��der��rep��re��sent��ed?adj.Insufficiently or inadequately represented: the underrepresented minority groups, ignored by the government.CLD groups into teaching, AR programs provide a meansto enter teaching for individuals who lack traditional undergraduateteacher preparation. It is particularly noteworthy that the averageproportion of students who were general educators was a sizable 22.8%,indicating that many credentialed cre��den��tial?n.1. That which entitles one to confidence, credit, or authority.2. credentials Evidence or testimonials concerning one's right to credit, confidence, or authority: educators are availing themselves ofadditional activities to attain certification. This phenomenonrepresents a new trend. Boe, Cook, Bobbitt, and Terhanian (1998) noted that the proportionof special education teachers who transferred to general education(8.8%) was significantly greater than the proportion of generaleducation teachers who transferred to special education (1%). However,only a small net loss of special education teachers occurred because thenumber of general educators is nine times the number of specialeducation teachers. Some general educators enrolled in the respondingprograms may have been unable to obtain a position in their chosen areaand sought entry to teaching by accessing an AR program in specialeducation. Whatever their reasons, these general educators represent aconsiderable proportion of participants entering the field. Moreover,with their background in education, these candidates are unlikely torequire the same intensity of training and support needed by those whohave little or no relevant background or experience. However, thesecandidates may be using the special education position as a way to entera particular school system, making them a risky investment when generaleducation positions become available. By far the largest group of participants, approximately 46%,consisted of midcareer changers. AR programs desire such individualsbecause they represent a new and large pool of potential specialeducation teachers. Reviewing the relative advantages and disadvantagesof recruiting midcareer changers in AR programs, Dai, Denslow, Dewey,Sindelar, and Rosenberg (2006) noted that since most midcareer changershold bachelor's degrees, programs can often streamline the trainingprocess, particularly when trainees bring to training relatedexperiences and backgrounds that can facilitate rapid acquisition ofconcepts related to education. Unfortunately, some midcareer changersare also high-risk prospects, particularly those who take substantialpay cuts to enter the field and those whose initial careers are leastlike teaching. Indeed, some individuals switch careers because ofaltruistic al��tru��ism?n.1. Unselfish concern for the welfare of others; selflessness.2. Zoology Instinctive cooperative behavior that is detrimental to the individual but contributes to the survival of the species. reasons; however, those who experience deep pay cuts arelikely to return to their more lucrative careers when opportunitiesarise, and those who had careers far different from teaching maydiscover that they are not comfortable working with children andadolescents or being constrained con��strain?tr.v. con��strained, con��strain��ing, con��strains1. To compel by physical, moral, or circumstantial force; oblige: felt constrained to object.See Synonyms at force.2. by the routines of a schoolenvironment. Because large numbers of career changers enter AR programsand because both good and bad reasons exist for changing careers, webelieve that programs must assess the motivation and dispositions ofmidcareer changers carefully and systematically. The large percentage of individuals who were recent recipients ofbachelor's degrees is also noteworthy. Across programs,approximately 28.7% of the participants had earned their degree lessthan 12 months before entering an AR program. Why do so many youngadults enter special education AR programs? Perhaps the reason is aninability to enter the job market in their chosen field or a desire topursue time-limited public service (e.g., Teach for America Teach For America (TFA) is a non-profit organization whose mission is to close the academic achievement gap between children from different socio-economic backgrounds. ) through atemporary teaching assignment. Another possibility is that many of theseindividuals completed general education programs and were able to securea teaching position only as a special educator. In fact, additionalanalysis of our data indicates that approximately 25% of those withrecent bachelor's degrees are also general educators. We believethat further analyses of these recent graduates are important; thosewith recent degrees constitute a diverse group of teaching candidateswho, because of their previous experience and long-term goals, mayrequire individualized in��di��vid��u��al��ize?tr.v. in��di��vid��u��al��ized, in��di��vid��u��al��iz��ing, in��di��vid��u��al��iz��es1. To give individuality to.2. To consider or treat individually; particularize.3. levels and intensity of training. As mentionedpreviously, those who are general educators will likely require lessdirect instruction in certain aspects of pedagogy and child development.Regarding those well-meaning young people who are pursuing specialeducation teaching as a temporary public service activity beforeenrolling in a professional school that is not related to education,policy makers will need to determine the relative benefits of allocatingextensive and scarce training resources to inexperienced personnel whohave little intention of staying in the field. Finally, the rapid growth of special education AR programs has beenjustified on the grounds that schools and colleges of education, thetraditional producers of special educators, are unable to keep up withthe demands of the market. The objective of expanding the number of ARprograms is to increase the existing pool of potential special educatorsand ultimately reduce the shortage of highly qualified teachers.Clearly, the large numbers of midcareer changers--particularly those whowould be unable to change to a different profession unless they receiveda salary or faced low opportunity costs for the training needed to entera different profession--represent a new supply of potential specialeducation teachers. However, one could argue that other participants inAR programs, particularly those with recent bachelor's degrees andsome of those who are general educators, would gravitate grav��i��tate?intr.v. grav��i��tat��ed, grav��i��tat��ing, grav��i��tates1. To move in response to the force of gravity.2. To move downward.3. to existingprograms if AR access were not easily available. We fear that new (andcostly) programs recruiting such individuals may cannibalize can��ni��bal��ize?v. can��ni��bal��ized, can��ni��bal��iz��ing, can��ni��bal��iz��esv.tr.1. To remove serviceable parts from (damaged airplanes, for example) for use in the repair of other equipment of the same existingprograms and result in no real increase in the needed supply.Individuals may be merely migrating from comprehensive programs withextensive requirements to programs that offer the lure lurethe skin-covered object which runs on a monorail on a Greyhound racing track and which the dogs are schooled to chase. The lure must be kept 30 to 40 ft ahead of the leading dog so that the field is stretched out. of an immediatesalary yet a more limited opportunity to acquire, master, and reflect onevidenced-based practices. The impact of AR programs on the actualsupply of certified special education teachers and on the design oftraditional teacher preparation programs remains to be seen. Futureefforts will need to determine whether widening program offerings isactually increasing supply or whether policy initiatives have onlyserved to shepherd a segment of the special education teacher marketaround many of the professional standards and requirements that we holdas essential for success with students with disabilities. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS On the basis of our analyses of the broad programmatic features, weconclude the following about AR programs in special education. * Large numbers of AR programs exist, particularly in states thatexperience significant shortages of special educators. Instead of beingeased out of the AR market, many IHEs have streamlined their offeringsand are--usually in partnerships with SEAs and LEAs--providingcertification programs that feature the opportunity to earn a salaryduring on-the-job training. We are uncertain, however, of the long-termeffects that streamlined programs will have on the quality of specialeducation teachers entering the classroom. * Although most programs feature rapid entry to classroom teaching,many programs provide extended opportunities for training throughcoursework, distance education, and on-site support through universitysupervision and mentoring. Unfortunately, a significant number ofprograms--11% of our respondents--do not provide an adequate amount ofsupport for candidates who are placed rapidly in the classroom. ARprograms are heterogeneous in length, support, and program intensity;and educators and policy makers must not view programs that deliver aresearch-based curriculum in a coherent programmatic fashion in the samelight as those that make little or no effort to do so. * Most AR programs in special education adhere to adhere toverb 1. follow, keep, maintain, respect, observe, be true, fulfil, obey, heed, keep to, abide by, be loyal, mind, be constant, be faithful2. the U.S.Department of Education's (2004) suggested practice of recruitingwidely and selecting carefully. Special education AR program respondentsemploy a wide range of strategies to recruit students and considerthemselves selective in their choice of candidates. Most programsrequire a bachelor's degree for program entry, and relatively fewoffer an additional degree as part of the program. Students in ARprograms tend to be older than students in traditional programs; but inboth groups, females outnumber out��num��ber?tr.v. out��num��bered, out��num��ber��ing, out��num��bersTo exceed the number of; be more numerous than.outnumberVerbto exceed in number: males. * The backgrounds of participants who are recruited into ARprograms and who ultimately persist in their new careers are a rich andimportant source of data for researchers and policy makers. By beingaware of these data, we can begin to form generalizations regarding thebackgrounds that may be best suited for success in an AR program. Forexample, we found many candidates with recent degrees who were alsogeneral educators, indicating a significant movement from generaleducation to special education. Such individuals appear, at first, to beexcellent candidates for AR programs--their previous experiences serveas a solid foundation for teaching and may eliminate the need for somebasic aspects of a teacher preparation program. However, such candidatesare also risky: They may have been unable to secure a general educationposition, they may use special education as a method of enteringteaching, and they may plan to leave their current position if one intheir chosen area becomes available. Programs for these individuals maynot be cost-effective, because the commitment to special education maybe short-lived and may not result in a sustained increase in the supplyof new teachers. * The largest group of AR participants is midcareer changers. Suchpersonnel are desirable because they represent a new pool of potentialspecial educators. However, midcareer changers are also riskycandidates; those who migrated from positions with high salaries orprofessions that were not similar to teaching are likely to return totheir previous careers if lucrative opportunities arise. Consequently,AR programs must institute selection criteria that carefully assess themotivations and dispositions of those who turn to education after acareer in another segment of the economy. * Many special education AR programs appear similar to traditionalteacher preparation programs in a number of ways. A large percentage ofAR programs have considerable IHE involvement, employ nationallyrecognized teaching standards, require coursework and supervisedfieldwork, provide mentors, and claim to be selective in admission.Nonetheless, several critical factors appear to differentiate ARprograms from traditional preparation options. These factors include thelength, intensity, and sequence of training activities; the amount ofpreparation time before entering the classroom; and the characteristicsand life experiences of those who choose to enter programs. LIMITATIONS We recognize the limited generality gen��er��al��i��ty?n. pl. gen��er��al��i��ties1. The state or quality of being general.2. An observation or principle having general application; a generalization.3. of our findings and urgereaders to be circumspect cir��cum��spect?adj.Heedful of circumstances and potential consequences; prudent.[Middle English, from Latin circumspectus, past participle of circumspicere, to take heed : in their interpretations of our results. Ourexperience in this study and elsewhere suggests that the life of many ARprograms may be fleeting. Two of the authors have undertaken AR programsof our own. Although our programs were OSEP-funded, state departments ofeducation and districts also fund similar programs. These programs havecome and gone, making them more like projects than like establishedprograms. In defining our universe, however, we did not make thisdifferentiation; as a result, our universe is inconstant in��con��stantadj.1. Changing or varying, especially often and without discernible pattern or reason.2. Relating to a structure that normally may or may not be present. and difficultto sample reliably. Other evidence of the ephemeral Temporary. Fleeting. Transitory. nature of ouruniverse came from colleagues in the Telephone Survey Lab, who reporteda large number of nonworking numbers (n = 55). We took this finding tomean that many of the programs that we had identified were no longer inexistence 1 year later. Several colleagues who were familiar withprograms in their home states have substantiated this speculation byrecognizing programs in our database that were no longer operating. Inshort, because some AR programs are short-lived, the universe ofprograms is inconstant, and no sample can represent it reliably. By thetime researchers take and survey a sample, the universe from which it isdrawn will have changed. Although not necessarily representative, theresponses from 101 programs form a substantial and illustrative il��lus��tra��tive?adj.Acting or serving as an illustration.il��lustra��tive��ly adv.Adj. 1. sourceof information. Second, we chose not to differentiate between individuals whoexplicitly refused to participate in the survey--truenonrespondents--and others who we could not reach at the numbers that wecalled, who had nonworking lines, or who did not answer calls in spiteof frequent callbacks. In this sense, we believe that our estimate ofthe completion rate is low. In fact, of the 134 individuals who did notcomplete the survey, only 31 explicitly refused to participate. Otherseither could not be contacted despite repeated attempts, or theirprograms were no longer operating. Thus, the upper bound of percentagecompletion is 101/132, or 76.5%, and the true value lies somewherebetween 76.5% and the minimum, 43%. Finally, we call readers' attention to the potential bias inthe self-report format of our survey items. Of course, biased respondingis most likely when questions have a recognizable valence Valence, city, FranceValence(väläNs`), city (1990 pop. 65,026), capital of Drôme dept., SE France, in Dauphiné, on the Rhône River. , as do ourquestions regarding standards and availability of mentorship. Who woulddisregard standards in developing a program? Who would not see valueadded Value AddedThe enhancement a company gives its product or service before offering the product to customers.Notes:This can either increase the products price or value. by including a mentoring component? We urge readers to exercisecaution in interpreting these findings and perhaps others. With these limitations in mind, we recall that in a previous reviewof the literature on AR programs in special education, we (Rosenberg& Sindelar, 2001, 2005) characterized the limited database as aniceberg iceberg,mass of ice that has become detached, or calved, from the edge of an ice sheet or glacier and is floating on the ocean. Because ice is slightly less dense than water about one ninth of the total mass of a berg projects above the water. with a small visible portion of published research andconference presentations and most of the AR enterprise below thesurface. We now know more of the nature and extent of AR programs andcan begin to use these data to judge the long-term efficacy of varioustypes of programs. After identifying program characteristics, we canassess efficacy through measures of attrition, cost, and teacherperformance. Clearly, the marketplace has responded innovatively to thecritical need for special educators. The pressing need to developsolutions for the shortage has challenged all of us to revise ourconventional thinking about how to best prepare special educationteachers rapidly. It is essential, however, that we evaluate our effortsto ensure that solutions proposed in the new marketplace meetprofessional standards reliably and do not cut deeply into the essentialelements of quality teacher preparation. We wish to acknowledge Val Sharpe and Vikram Misra for theirassistance with data collection and data management. This article is one of a series of research activities of theCenter on Personnel Studies in Special Education (COPSSE), funded by theOffice of Special Education Programs of the U.S. Department of Education(H325Q00002). The contents of this document do not necessarily reflectthe view or opinions of the Department of Education, nor does mention ofother organizations imply endorsement by them. Manuscript received October 2005; accepted May 2006. REFERENCES Boe, E. E., Cook, L. H., Bobbitt, S. A., & Terhanian, G.(1998). The shortage of fully certified teachers in special and generaleducation. Teacher Education and Special Education, 21(1), 1-21. Connelly, V. J. (2003, November). An analysis of alternativelyprepared teachers using the school and staffing survey. Paper presentedat the meeting of the Teacher Education Division, Biloxi, MS. Council for Exceptional Children. (2003). What every specialeducator must know: The standards for the preparation and licensure ofspecial educators (5th ed.). Reston, VA: Author. Dai, C. Denslow, D., Dewey, J., Sindelar, P. T., & Rosenberg,M. S. (2006). Economic analysis and the design of alternative routeteacher education programs. Manuscript submitted for publication. Darling-Hammond, L. (1999). Solving the dilemmas of teacher supply,demand, and standards. Quality Teaching, 9, 3-4. Feistritzer, C. E., & Chester, D. T. (2001). Alternativeteacher certification. Washington, DC: National Center for EducationInformation. Feistritzer, C. E., Haar, C. K., Hobar, J. H., & Scullion, A.B. (2005). Alternative teacher certification. Washington DC: NationalCenter for Education Information. Geiger, W. L., Crutchfield, M. D., & Mainzer, R. (2003). Thestatus of licensure of special education teachers in the 21st century(COPSSE Document No. RS-7). Gainesville, FL: University of Florida University of Florida is the third-largest university in the United States, with 50,912 students (as of Fall 2006) and has the eighth-largest budget (nearly $1.9 billion per year). UF is home to 16 colleges and more than 150 research centers and institutes. , Center on Personnel Studiesin Special Education. Goldhaber, D. D. (2004). Why do we license teachers? In F. M. Hess,A. J. Rotherham, & K. Walsh (Eds.), A qualified teacher in everyclassroom? Appraising old answers and new ideas (pp. 81-100). Cambridge,MA: Harvard Education Press. Hardman, M. L., & Mulder, M. A. (2003). Federal educationreform: Critical issues in public education and the impact on studentswith disabilities. Eagle Summit on Personnel Preparation in Behavior andEmotional Disorders. Dallas: University of North Texas. Hassel, B. C., & Sherburne, M. E. (2004). Model 2: Cultivatingsuccess through multiple providers: A new state strategy for improvingthe quality of teacher preparation. In E M. Hess, A. J. Rotherham, &K. Walsh (Eds.), A qualified teacher in every classroom? Appraising oldanswers and new ideas (pp. 201-222). Cambridge, MA: Harvard EducationPress. Hawley, W. D. (1992). The theory and practice of alternativecertification: Implications for the improvement of teaching. In W. D.Hawley (Ed.), The alternative certification of teachers (pp. 3-34).Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Teacher Education. Hess, F. M., Rotherham, A. J., & Walsh, K. (Eds.). (2004). Aqualified teacher in every classroom? Appraising old answers and newideas. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press. Hillkirk, R. K. (2000). Effective models for alternative programsin teacher education. In D. J. McIntyre & D. M. Byrd (Eds.),Research on effective models for teacher education (Association ofTeacher Educators Yearbook No. 8; pp. 195-202). Thousand Oaks Thousand Oaks,residential city (1990 pop. 104,352), Ventura co., S Calif., in a farm area; inc. 1964. Avocados, citrus, vegetables, strawberries, and nursery products are grown. , CA:Corwin. Humphrey, D. C., & Weschler, M. E. (2005). Insights intoalternative certification: Initial findings from a national study.Teachers College Record. Retrieved April 4, 2006, fromhttp://www.tcrecord.org/content. asp?contentid=12145 Neel, R. S., Cessna, K. K., Borock, J., & Bechard, S. (2003).Quality program indicators for children with emotional and behavioraldisorders. Beyond Behavior, 12(3), 3-9. Rosenberg, M. S., & Rock, E. E. (1994). Alternativecertification in special education: Efficacy of a collaborative,field-based teacher preparation program. Teacher Education and SpecialEducation, 17, 141-153. Rosenberg, M. S., & Sindelar, P. T. (1998). The impact ofmarket driven higher education practices on professional teacherdevelopment. Teacher Education and Special Education, 21, 227-235. Rosenberg, M. S., & Sindelar, P. T. (2001). The proliferationof alternative routes to certification in special education: A criticalreview of the literature. Arlington, VA: Council for ExceptionalChildren, National Clearinghouse for Professions in Special Education. Rosenberg, M. S., & Sindelar, P. T. (2005). The proliferationof alternative routes to certification in special education: A criticalreview of the literature. Journal of Special Education, 39, 117-127. Rosenberg, M. S., Sindelar, P. T., & Hardman, M. L. (2004).Preparing highly qualified teachers for students with emotional orbehavioral disorders: The impact of NCLB NCLB No Child Left Behind (US education initiative)and IDEA. Behavioral Disorders,29, 266-278. Rotherham, A. J., & Mead, S. (2004). Back to the future: Thehistory and politics of state teacher licensure and certification. In EM. Hess, A. J. Rotherham, & K. Walsh (Eds.), A qualified teacher inevery classroom? Appraising old answers and new ideas (pp. 11-47).Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press. Thomas B. Fordham Foundation. (1999). The teachers we need and howto get more of them: A manifesto MANIFESTO. A solemn declaration, by the constituted authorities of a nation, which contains the reasons for its public acts towards another. 2. On the declaration of war, a manifesto is usually issued in which the nation declaring the war, states the reasons . Washington, DC: Author. Tyler, N. C., Yzquierdo, Z., Lopez-Reyna, N., & Flippin, S. S.(2004). Cultural linguistic diversity and the special educationworkforce: A critical overview. The Journal of Special Education, 38,22-38. U.S. Department of Education. (2002). Meeting the highly qualifiedteacher challenge: The Secretary's annual report on teacherquality. Washington, DC: Office of Policy, Planning, and Innovation. U.S. Department of Education. (2004). Alternative routes tocertification. Washington, DC: Author. U.S. Department of Education. (2005). Individuals with DisabilitiesEducation Act This article or section is currently being developed or reviewed.Some statements may be disputed, incorrect, , biased or otherwise objectionable. (IDEA) Data. Annual Report Tables. Retrieved April 25,2005, from http://www. ideadata.org/ Zeichner, K. M., & Schulte, A. K. (2001). What we know anddon't know from peer reviewed research about alternativecertification programs. Teacher Education, 52, 266-282. Zemsky, R. (1993). Consumer markets and higher education. LiberalEducation, 79, 14-17. MICHAEL S. ROSENBERG Johns Hopkins University Johns Hopkins University,mainly at Baltimore, Md. Johns Hopkins in 1867 had a group of his associates incorporated as the trustees of a university and a hospital, endowing each with $3.5 million. Daniel C. K. LYNN BOYER West Virginia West Virginia,E central state of the United States. It is bordered by Pennsylvania and Maryland (N), Virginia (E and S), and Kentucky and, across the Ohio R., Ohio (W).Facts and FiguresArea, 24,181 sq mi (62,629 sq km). Pop. Department of Education PAUL T. SINDELAR University of Florida SONIL K. MISRA Johns Hopkins University MICHAEL S. ROSENBERG (CEC MD Federation), Professor, Department ofSpecial Education, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland "Baltimore" redirects here. For the surrounding county, see Baltimore County, Maryland. For other uses, see Baltimore (disambiguation).Baltimore is an independent city located in the state of Maryland in the United States. . K.LYNN BOYER (CEC WV Federation), Executive Director, West VirginiaDepartment of Education, Office of Special Education Achievement,Charleston. PAUL T. SINDELAR (CEC FL Federation), Associate Dean forResearch, College of Education, University of Florida, Gainesville.SUNIL K. MISRA (CEC MD Federation), Research Associate, Department ofSpecial Education, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed toMichael S. Rosenberg, Department of Special Education, EducationBuilding, Johns Hopkins University Baltimore, MD 21218, 410516-8275(e-mail: mrose@jhu.edu).TABLE 1Survey Development Number ofArea Description QuestionsI. Program Agencies responsible 9 infrastructure for design of program; funding sources; standards used in design; specific groups targeted.II. Program length Length of time in 7 and intensity training before teaching; length of training program.III. Program Type of degree and 17 characteristics license offered; type of financial support offered; modes of instruction provided; availability of mentorship; recruitment strategies.IV. Participant Age, race, gender, and 17 demographics educational background of participants.TABLE 2Program Infrastructure Data Summary Percentage ofSurvey Topic RespondentsProgram funding: All apply(N= 98) SEA 57.1 IHE 52.9 LEA 39.8 Federal grant 31.6 Tuition 10.2Agencies responsible for design:All apply(N = 99) SEA 71.7 IHE 75.8 LEA 48.5Agencies responsible for design:Collaborations(N= 93) IHE-LEA-SEA 33.3 IHE-SEA 22.6 IHE only 12.9 SEA only 12.9 IHE-LEA 8.6 LEA-SEA 6.4 LEA only 3.2Teaching standards employed(N= 86) CEC 82.5 INTASC 36.0 NBPTS 34.8 Other 43.0TABLE 3Program Length and Intensity: Data Summary Percentage ofSurvey Topic RespondentsLength of preparation in monthsbefore assuming teachingresponsibilities(N = 83) 0 14.5 1-3 37.4 4-6 15.6 7-9 6.0 10-12 12.0 More than 12 15.6Months in program beforereceiving full professionallicense(N = 93) 10-12 12.9 13-18 18.3 19-24 38.7 More than 25 30.1Amount of time before assumingteaching responsibilities/months in program before license(N = 80) Extended/extended 30.0 Extended/brief 18.7 Brief/extended 40.0 Brief/brief 11.3TABLE 4Program Characteristics: Data Summary Percentage ofSurvey Topic RespondentsPercentage of applicants accepted(N = 78) 0-20 1.3 21-40 10.3 41-60 12.8 61-80 33.3 81-100 42.3Number of individuals whocomplete program(N = 78) 0-10 13.2 11-20 30.8 21-30 16.5 More than 31 40.6Completion rates(N = 82) Less than 75 12.2 76-89 21.9 90-100 65.9Age/grade levels of programs(N = 96) Early childhood 1.0 Elementary 4.2 Secondary 3.1 Elementary/secondary 41.6 Early childhood through secondary 50.0TABLE 5Participant Demographics: Data Summary Percentage ofSurvey Topic RespondentsGender Male 24.5 Female 75.5Age 20-24 21.2 25-30 26.4 More than 31 52.4Race White 70.5 African American 16.2 Hispanic 10.2Participant experience beforeprogram entry Retired 2.7 Retired military 3.6 Recent bachelor's degree (less than 12 months) 28.7 Midcareer changer 45.9 General educators 22.8 Paraeducators 11.4