Restless corpses: `secondary burial' in the Babenberg and Habsburg dynasties.

Restless corpses: `secondary burial' in the Babenberg and Habsburg dynasties. Introduction Distinguishing various formation processes that shape the state ofburials is a major challenge for archaeologists. One such process issecondary burial. In many archaeological reports the term is looselyapplied to burials where corpses show signs of alterations and do notrepresent complete and fully articulated bodies (Williams & Beck2001: 1). The causes of `secondary burial' formation vary widely(Orschiedt 1997) spanning both cultural formation processes (treatmentof the corpse, reclamation and disturbance processes) and environmentalformation processes, e.g. `faunalturbation [sic]' (Schiller 1987).Nevertheless, in the archaeological record The archaeological record is a term used in archaeology to denote all archaeological evidence, including the physical remains of past human activities which archaeologists seek out and record in an attempt to analyze and reconstruct the past. the reasons behinddisarranged bones may be obscured. This article discusses `secondary burial' formation in twodynastic mortuary samples. The need for such analysis developed out ofthe author's focus on ancient Maya mortuary behaviour (Krejci &Culbert 1995). Disarticulated skeletal remains are frequent in the Mayaarea and are variably interpreted as dismembered victims of sacrifice,exhumed and reburied venerated ancestors or disturbed corpses (Krejci1998: 218; Sievert sie��vertn. Abbr. Sv A unit of ionizing radiation absorbed dose equivalent in the International System of Units, obtained as a product of the absorbed dose measure in grays and a dimensionless factor, stipulated by the International 2001). Some disarticulated and incomplete skeletalparts have been identified as the remains of Maya rulers or have beendiscovered in `royal' contexts (Welsh 1988; Martin & Grube2000: 150). Since many tombs probably held the remains of members ofancient Maya royal houses This is a list of regnant and non-regnant Princely, Royal and Imperial Houses of the World. The names of reigning monarchs are in bold text. Names used if the individual were reigning are given if known, otherwise the name given is the name currently used for them. , the interpretation of the differing states ofbody articulation may be supported by a cross-cultural analysis offormation processes of dynastic mortuary records. The Babenberg and Habsburg dynasties Mortuary records from historic Europe provide useful comparativedata sets, since special treatment of the deceased and continuousrearrangement of the dead are not only prevalent but also welldocumented, revealing the underlying motivations. Burial records fromBabenbergs and Habsburgs and data from related European dynasties allowa detailed analysis of the circumstances that led to `secondaryburial' formation from the Middle Ages to modern times. The Babenbergs enter history in 976 when Leopold I Leopold I, prince of Anhalt-DessauLeopold I,1676–1747, prince of Anhalt-Dessau (1693–1747). He served as field marshal in the Prussian army and was nicknamed "the Old Dessauer. was given asmall margravate mar��gra��vi��ate? also mar��gra��vaten.The territory governed by a margrave. in the present day province of Lower Austria Lower Austria,Ger. Niederösterreich, province (1991 pop. 1,480,927), c.7,400 sq mi (19,170 sq km), NE Austria. Vienna, although outside its boundaries, is the seat of the provincial government. . Asmargraves and dukes, the Babenbergs ruled Austria for 270 years (Lechner1976). Their holdings were taken over by Rudolph I of Habsburg in 1278who had been elected German Roman King five years earlier. The Habsburgsruled Austria for 640 years. In 1740 the dynasty died out in the maleline, but continued to rule as the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty until 1918(Hamann 1988a). The analysed sample includes all people that belonged to one of thetwo dynasties through birth or marriage, as well as spouses of otherhouses, totalling 868 individuals who died over a period of 1000 years.The analysis proves that very varied processes are at hand to producewhat an archaeologist simply calls a `secondary burial'. In thepresent sample the main responsible agents are multi-stage burialprogrammes, postfuneral relocation and disturbance. Multi-stage burial programmes Most medieval kings and queens had burial places assigned orconstructed years before death. But high mobility in the Middle Agesresulted in people rarely dying where they had planned to be buried.Records from the 10th and 11th century prove that the wish for the royalburial place any place where burials are made.See also: Burial was taken seriously by the survivors, since several corpsesof Holy Roman emperors HOLY ROMAN EMPERORS(including dates of reign)Saxon dynasty Otto I, 936–73 Otto II, 973–83 Otto III, 983–1002 Henry II, 1002–24 Salian or Franconian dynasty Conrad II, 1024–39 of the Ottone and Salian dynasties weretransported from the place of death to the burial place (Gerbert et al.1772 (4,2): 62-3). Before that time the wish was only occasionallyfollowed and even a mighty emperor such as Charlemagne did not have hisway in death. While he wanted to be buried in Paris at St Denis besidehis parents, he was instead buried at Aachen (FIGURE 1) where he haddied (Schaller 1993: 66). What was royal standard by the 10th centurywas soon exercised on nobles of lesser rank who were also transportedlong distances from their death to their burial places (Schafer 1920:491). [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] Body processing: evisceration evisceration/evis��cer��a��tion/ (e-vis?er-a��shun)1. removal of the abdominal viscera.2. removal of the contents of the eyeball, leaving the sclera.e��vis��cer��a��tionn. and excarnation Transportation of the deceased required special treatment of thecorpse in order to delay putrefaction putrefaction:see decay of organic matter. . Removing the intestines and theheart combined with embalming embalming(ĕmbä`mĭng, ĭm–), practice of preserving the body after death by artificial means. The custom was prevalent among many ancient peoples and still survives in many cultures. would usually guarantee a successfultransfer, especially if death occurred during the winter months. But,when death occurred ever further away from Central Europe Central Europe is the region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and Western Europe. In addition, Northern, Southern and Southeastern Europe may variously delimit or overlap into Central Europe. , mostly duringmilitary expeditions and in warmer climates, transport of merelyeviscerated, deceased nobles back to their homelands became increasinglymore difficult. A more efficient treatment of the corpse was required,especially in the much warmer Mediterranean region, where many peopledied after AD 1000. Burial in what were considered foreign, hostile,heathen lands was out of the question for a high-ranking noble in theMiddle Ages, who wanted to be buried in his own territory, in order toawait resurrection there (Boase 1972: 113). Cremation cremation,disposal of a corpse by fire. It is an ancient and widespread practice, second only to burial. It has been found among the chiefdoms of the Pacific Northwest, among Northern Athapascan bands in Alaska, and among Canadian cultural groups. had not only beenexplicitly forbidden under Charlemagne in the 8th century under thethreat of the death penalty (Schuchhardt 1920: 499), but suchdestruction of the bones was also construed as destruction of the souland thus the chance of resurrection. Burning the body was only used as apunishment (Finucane 1981: 57-8). The solution for the dilemma was a body treatment that became knownas mos teutonicus Mos Teutonicus is a practise that was used mainly during the Second Crusades and after. It is when a body is taken and boiled in vinegar or water until the flesh falls off from the bones. The words "Mos Teutonicus" come from the Latin words meaning "German custom". (the German custom). The bodies were disembowelled,cut into pieces and the flesh removed by boiling the body in water, wineor vinegar. While the flesh and intestines were mostly buried in situ In place. When something is "in situ," it is in its original location. ,sometimes cremated, the clean, excarnated bones were wrapped in animalhides for their journey (Finucane 1981: 46). FIGURE 2 shows that thereexists a relationship between the distance of transport and the choiceof the method. Occasionally the mos teutonicus was also applied forshorter distances when a long time period between death and burial wasrequired (Schafer 1920: 485). [FIGURE 2 OMITTED] Division of the corpse was never favoured by the church, and waseven banned in 1299 and again in 1300 by Pope Boniface VIII Pope Boniface VIII (c. 1235 – October 11, 1303), born Benedetto Caetani, was Pope of the Roman Catholic Church from 1294 to 1303. BiographyCaetani was born in 1235 in Anagni, c. 50 kilometers southeast of Rome. as a `moshorribilis' (Schafer 1920: 497; Brown 1981: 221). Nevertheless,both disembowelling and boiling the corpse remained extremely popularamong European dynasties (Brown 1981; Dodson 1994), although separatingthe flesh from the bones ceased in the 15th century. At least twoBabenbergs and probably one Habsburg received the latter treatment. When the Heiligenkreuz monastery was investigated in 1739 theskeletons were found in varying states of articulation (FIGURE 3). Incoffin VIII rest the remains of Babenberg duke Frederick I Frederick I, Holy Roman emperor and German kingFrederick Ior Frederick Barbarossa(bärbərôs`ə)[Ital.,=red beard], c. , who died on16 April 1198 during a Crusade and had been treated in more teutonico(Lechner 1976: 193). The engraving displays a tightly packed bone bundlethat differs from other secondary arrangements at the site, such asbones in coffins I, II and III that have been reburied from themonastery of Klosterneuburg (Koch 1976: 194-6). [FIGURE 3 OMITTED] Babenberg Leopold VI, who was returning from a crusade, died on 28July 1230 in San Germano San Germano:see Cassino, Italy. (today Cassino Cassino, town, ItalyCassino(käs-sē`nō), town (1991 pop. 32,787), in Latium, central Italy, in the Apennines, on the Rapido River. It is a commercial and agricultural center, and the site of a Fiat auto assembly plant. ), Italy. He was eviscerated andexcarnated in the monastery of Monte Cassino Monte Cassino(môn`tā käs-sē`nō), monastery, in Latium, central Italy, E of the Rapido River. Situated on a hill (1,674 ft/510 m) overlooking Cassino, it was founded c.529 by St. , where his soft tissue wasburied, while his bones were brought to Lilienfeld, Austria and buriedfour months later (Gerbert et al. 1772 (4,1): 78). Habsburg Rudolph IVdied in Milan on 27 July 1365. His bones were brought to Vienna sewninto a cowhide cow��hide?n.1. a. The hide of a cow.b. The leather made from this hide.2. A strong heavy flexible whip, usually made of braided leather.tr.v. (FIGURE 4) and buried in the crypt in St Stephen'scathedral before December of the same year (Baum 1996: 312). [FIGURE 4 OMITTED] Temporary storage From the late 11th century on, temporary storage of a corpse alsobecame increasingly an option. A series of new orders were foundedbetween the 11th and 13th centuries (1) and dramatically expandedthroughout Europe. Each order was responsible for the construction ofhundreds of new monastic buildings under donations given by members ofthe aristocracy (e.g. Dunn 1997: 114-15; Bordua 1997: 11617). Foundersof religious houses not only could expect insurance of their spiritualwelfare, but also a burial place for themselves and their familymembers. With such burial places established, the need for transport ofcorpses increased, if death occurred elsewhere; but if immediatetransport was not possible, there existed many new ceremonial structuresthat allowed bodies to be temporarily stored. Three corpses in the 14th-century Habsburg crypt in the Swissmonastery Konigsfelden (FIGURE 5) had been stored before burial.Elisabeth of Gorizia, the founder of this monastery, died in Vienna in1313 (Gut 1999: 105). Her corpse could only be transported toKonigsfelden three years after her death because of the tense politicalsituation and eventual war that broke out between her son Frederick `theFair' and Louis `the Bavarian' (Friess 1890: 59). (2) Herdaughter Elisabeth had first been stored in Nancy (Gerbert et al. 1772(4,1): 144) and her son Henry in Graz (Stelzer 1988: 162). [FIGURE 5 OMITTED] Storage could also take place within the same city if the buildingwas not ready, or even in the same building, if the tomb or funerary fu��ner��ar��y?adj.Of or suitable for a funeral or burial.[Latin fner chamber were still under construction. Temporary burial was also awelcome alternative to body processing and transport when someone wassuspected to have died from a communicable disease communicable diseasen.A disease that is transmitted through direct contact with an infected individual or indirectly through a vector. Also called contagious disease. . Albert VI died in1463, two days after two black carbuncles had emerged on his body. Sincethese were interpreted as plague-boils, his doctor refused to eviscerate e��vis��cer��ate?v. e��vis��cer��at��ed, e��vis��cer��at��ing, e��vis��cer��atesv.tr.1. To remove the entrails of; disembowel.2. and embalm em��balmv.To treat a corpse with preservatives in order to prevent decay. the body and Albert was temporarily buried in a plague pit(Mraz 1988: 43). Death dates of children and adolescents sometimes precedeconstruction dates of tombs and crypts in which they were buried.Habsburg queen Anna (alias Gertrud), wife of Rudolph I, was buried in1281 at Basel cathedral with her infant son Charles who had died 5 yearsbefore. Three children of archduke arch��duke?n.1. In certain royal families, especially that of imperial Austria, a nobleman having a rank equivalent to that of a sovereign prince.2. Used as a title for such a nobleman. Charles II of Inner Austria, who restin the monastery of Seckau in Styria, had also died before theconstruction of the burial crypt in 1587. Postfuneral relocation When bodies were exhumed and reburied after the final funeral, verydifferent processes were involved. In the analysed sample two main kindscan be distinguished. Relocation could take place either within abuilding complex, building or funeral chamber (internal relocation), orfrom one building, town or country into another (external relocation). External relocation Relocation from one burial site to another was primarily done forpolitical reasons and often involved more than one corpse. In 1770, 14Habsburgs who had been buried in Switzerland between 1276 and 1386 (11at Konigsfelden in FIGURE 5) were exhumed. Switzerland had become a veryimproper burial place for this royal dynasty, since it was no longerpart of the Habsburg Empire nor even a Roman Catholic country. Byinitiative of abbot Martin Gerbert the bones were brought to his newlyrebuilt monastery, St Blasien in the Black Forest. But only 36 yearslater, after Austria had lost all surviving possessions in the Germansouthwest, the monastery was secularized and the convent was forced toleave for Spital am Pyhrn in 1807. The bones were exhumed and forwarded,but already in 1809 the monks moved to St Paul im Lavanttal taking thebones with them. After several relocations within the monastery of StPaul, the bones were finally buried into a small crypt under the mainaltar of the monastery church in 1936 (Gut 1999: 105-10). One of the most bizarre acts of corpse transfer happened inDecember 1940, when by order of Adolf Hitler a coffin was removed fromthe Capuchin Crypt in Vienna and brought to Paris. It held the remainsof the Duke of Reichstadt, the only son from the marriage of Napoleonwith Marie Louise of Habsburg, a great-niece of Marie Antoinette. Thispresent to Marshal Philippe Petain, the leader of the Vichy government,was made on the occasion of the 100th anniversary of the relocation ofNapoleon's corpse from St Helena to France (Hawlik-van de Water1993: 213). Despite the larger political context dynastic reburial Noun 1. reburial - the act of burying againreburyingburying, burial - concealing something under the ground could alsobe guided by personal motivations. In Spain, 10 Habsburgs were exhumedand reburied into the newly constructed Monastery of San Lorenzo, alsocalled El Escorial in the 16th century. According to the Foundationcharter of 1567 the creation of a burial place was a prime motive forthe monastery's foundation by Philip II. During childhood Philiphad suffered the loss of his mother and two brothers, and before thefoundation two wives had died. Additionally his father, Charles V, whowas buried at the monastery of Yuste, had left the choice of his finalresting-place to his son (Martinez Cuesta cuesta(kwĕs`tə), asymmetric ridge characterized by a short, steep escarpment on one side, and a long, gentle slope on the other. The steep side exposes the edge of erosion-resistant rock layers that form the cuestas. 1992: 12-13). By 1573, whenthe first bodies arrived at El Escorial from Madrid, the list of deadfamily members had grown to include Philip's oldest son Don Carlos,his third wife Isabel of Valois and her premature baby. The reunion withhis deceased family was a strong dynastic statement. The exhumation andreburial act not only included parents, brothers, wives (only Mary Tudorremained in London at Westminster Abbey), and children, but also twopaternal aunts, Eleanor (first queen of Portugal, then queen of France)and Maria (queen of Bohemia and Hungary) (Martinez Cuesta 1992: 101).(3) Internal relocation: enlargement, refurbishment, violation, naturaldisasters and translation For a large dynastic family that chooses a long-term burial placesuch as the Habsburgs and succeeding Bourbons at El Escorial,accumulation of bodies over time will create a space problem. This wasovercome by the creation of additional mortuary chambers. Due to theconstruction of the Royal Pantheon under Philip IV in the 17th centuryand the Princes' Pantheon under Bourbon queen Isabel in the 19thcentury, of the 46 individuals in the sample that are buried at ElEscorial at least 40 are secondary burials. A similar process can be observed at the Capuchin Crypt in Vienna,the largest Habsburg burial site of all time. The crypt, which in 1633consisted of one chamber with two coffins that held the secondaryremains of Empress Anna and Emperor Mathias, was continuously enlargedover a period of 300 years. Today the crypt consists of 10 connectedchambers and holds 143 corpses (Hawlik-van de Water 1993). On the orderof Maria Theresa, who had inherited the throne in 1740, several coffinswere either re-dressed or renewed. Such behaviour is not surprising fora person who displayed extreme orderliness in mortuary issues. MariaTheresa's own gigantic funerary monument was ready 26 years beforeher death, the clothes, shoes and even the bier that were to be used inthe funeral had been waiting for more than a decade (Wolfsgruber 1887:254). Maria Theresa's care for mortuary monuments was not restrictedto the Capuchin crypt. In 1754 the bodies from the old St Stephen'scrypt were exhumed, put in new metal coffins and reburied in a new orderin the enlarged crypt together with the intestinal urns (FIGURE 6). Theunnamed skeletal remains in FIGURE 4 (marked as no. 8) were notreburied. They almost certainly belonged to one of three women who wereinterred at St Stephen's cathedral between 1362 and 1463 (Hamann1988b: 180; Strnad 1988: 65). Of the medieval crypt population the bonesof one woman survived, whereas the remains of all eight males stillexist. [FIGURE 6 OMITTED] There are several examples of mortal remains of less importantdynasty members who were treated with disrespect. Nine unnamed infantsof King Albert I, who had died around the end of 13th century, werethrown into an adjoining garden when the Dominican monastery at Tullnwas closed in 1782 (Lein 1978: 8). This happened after the `completest[sic] enlightened despot in European history' (Macartney 1968:119), Emperor Joseph II had dissolved most mendicant, contemplative andteaching orders. During his reign three large 14th-century tombs withthe remains of three women and one infant disappeared without a tracewhen the church of the Order of Friars Minor Conventual(Minoritenkirche) in Vienna was remodelled in 1784 (Vocelka & Heller1997: 307). During warfare and riots, tombs were frequently desecrated, gravegoods were stolen and the bones disturbed or thrown out. The royal tombsat Szekesfehervar, Hungary were destroyed by the Turks between 1543 and1688 (Meyer 2000: 166-8) and some tombs at Speyer cathedral were lootedby French soldiers in 1689 (Klimm 1953:57). Other violent incidencesthat caused destruction or damage of graves were Hussite raids inBohemia, the Thirty Years' War, the French Revolution and Campaignsunder Napoleon. In some cases the bones were later reburied intocollective tombs (e.g. Brown 1985: 255). Natural disasters such as earthquakes (Basel 1356) and fires (Melkmonastery 1297) have possibly also contributed to the process ofrelocation (Gut 1999: 100; Jungwirth 1971: 663). A very special and isolated reason for exhumation in the data setis canonisation Noun 1. canonisation - (Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Church) the act of admitting a deceased person into the canon of saintscanonizationsanctification - a religious ceremony in which something is made holy , which in the later Middle Ages included the opening ofthe tomb and exhumation of the bones. The function of this ritual, thetranslatio or translation, was to move the bones to a holier, morehonourable position (Finucane 1981: 52-3). Babenberg Leopold III, whohad died in 1136 and was buried at the monastery of Klosterneuburg, wascanonized in 1485 and first exhumed in 1506. The bones were put in asilver shrine, but by the early 17th century the cranium cranium:see skull. , the left armbones and some smaller bones were separately kept. The silverreliquaries were melted to fill the empty imperial treasuries in 1529(Turkish invasion) and 1810 (after surrendering to Napoleon), but eachtime the saint's bones were rescued from the monastery and returnedand reburied into new shrines some time later (Rohrig 1976: 237-8). Disturbance The establishment of monastic collective burial crypts into whichsequential interments were made contributed to the process ofdisarticulation disarticulation/dis��ar��tic��u��la��tion/ (dis?ahr-tik?u-la��shun) exarticulation; amputation or separation at a joint. dis��ar��tic��u��la��tionn. of skeletal remains. Where bodies were buried inshrouds, disturbance was naturally considerably higher than in tombswhere wooden or even metal coffins were used. In the 15th century at theCistercian monastery Seligenthal, a foundation of the house ofWittelsbach The Wittelsbach family is a European royal family and a German dynasty from Bavaria. OriginBerthold, Margrave in Bavaria (died 980), was the ancestor of Otto I, Count of Scheyern (died 1072), whose 3rd son Otto II, Count of Dachau acquired the castle of Wittelsbach , at every new burial the tomb was reopened and the corpseplaced between the bodies of previously buried house members and coveredwith lime and soil (Ziegler 1997: 259). Last but not least bones were disturbed when coffins were openedfor curiosity or during scientific investigations. Conclusions Of 868 people who died between 994 and 1993 three people wereexcarnated, one person was cremated (USA 1958) and two people were lostin a storm around Cape Horn in 1890. Corpses of 32 people weretemporarily stored and saw later burial in a more or less excarnatedstate. In two thirds of the 32 cases the storage time ranged between sixmonths and five years, but more extended periods were possible. EmpressAnna was stored for 15 years and Emperor Frederick III (V) was movedinto the large marble tomb at St Stephen's cathedral only 20 yearsafter his death. At least 117 people were eviscerated and intestines andheart (rarely also brain, eyes, tongue or a finger) were buried intoseparate containers. Exhumation after the final funeral and relocation from one country,town, or building into another took place 95 times and involved 70corpses. 392 relocations were carried out inside a building involving247 corpses. Coffins were renewed 168 times (127 individuals) or opened112 times (99 individuals). One may conclude that by archaeologicaldefinition at least 351 corpses (40.4%) have been tampered with. A moredetailed investigation will most likely reveal an even higherpercentage, since 200 cases (23%) could not be evaluated with certainty. While part of a highly specific historical scenario, the studystresses that `secondary burial' in other elite contexts may alsobe the result of such a complex set of cultural phenomena. For theClassic Maya (AD 250-900), archaeological research, skeletal studies andthe decipherment of the ancient script indicate a similar behaviour suchas body processing, exhumation and reburial, caching of tomb contents,looting and desecration of royal tombs, tomb re-entry, ritual use ofhuman bones and sequential interments in collective crypts (Whittington& Reed 1997; Tiesler Blos 1999; McAnany 1998; Houston et al. 1998:19; Sievert 2001; Hammond et al. 1975; Chase & Chase 1996). These different kinds of behaviour have recently been attributed toancestor worship (McAnany 1995). Though care for ancestors is a criticalelement in a dynastic mortuary context, the formation of`secondary' human remains should be viewed as the product of awider range of both circumstantial and intentional, ritual andnon-ritualistic behaviour. The death of Maya nobles during one of manylong distance journeys (Schele & Mathews 1991) and rapid decay in atropical environment would have made transport of a deceased anunpleasant undertaking. Since cremation was only introduced in the Mayaarea at the Classic-Postclassic transition (Welsh 1988: 215) temporaryburial and dismemberment dismemberment/dis��mem��ber��ment/ (dis-mem��ber-ment) amputation of a limb or a portion of it. dismembermentamputation of a limb or a portion of it. may have been adequate solutions (Hertz 1907;Bloch 1971; Metcalf & Huntington 1991; Murphy & Mallory 2000).Body processing may also be directly connected to separate burial ofdifferent body parts (Becker 1986: 46-8; 1992). Untimely death orshifting territorial ties may have caused reburial of deceased familymembers. Several Maya tombs have been recorded as containing`sacrificial victims'. These victims are generally lacking signs ofviolent death and their sacrificial status has merely been inferred fromthe disarticulated state of their bones. The `sacrificed youths' inTikal Burial 10 and the `slain woman' in Burial 166 (Coe 1990: 482,240-1) could just as easily represent exhumed relatives who werereburied with the main occupant of the tomb. (4) Evidence from medieval and post-medieval Europe demonstrates thatthe methodology applied in burial analysis needs to take into accountthe complex potential scenarios of `secondary' burial formation andapply a wider variety of examination techniques to disarticulated bones.Eventually, only an increased utilization of skeletal biological dataand a close collaboration between archaeologists and bioarchaeologists(Buikstra 1997: 228) will lead to a thorough understanding of the natureof such evidence and thus contribute to the development of improvedsocial and political models. Acknowledgements: This research was funded by the Austrian ScienceFoundation (FWF-Project H140-SPR). I would like to thank Teresa JudiceGamito and Simon Stoddart, as well as Sloan Williams and Lane Beck forarranging the sessions at the 6th EAA Annual Meeting in Lisbon 2000 and66th SAA (Systems Application Architecture) A set of interfaces designed to cross all IBM platforms from PC to mainframe. Introduced by IBM in 1987, SAA includes the Common User Access (CUA), the Common Programming Interface for Communications (CPI-C) and Common Communications Annual Meeting in New Orleans 2001, where earlier versions ofthis paper were presented. I also thank Steven Weiss and two anonymousreviewers for their comments. (1) Carthusians 1084, Cistercians 1098, Premonstratensians 1120,Carmelites 12th century, Franciscans (approved in 1209), Dominicans1214. (2) Both claimed to be legitimate successors to German Roman KingHenry VII, who had died in Italy in the summer of 1313. It should bementioned that this king's body was also processed before burial(Lipburger 1997:131; Meyer 2000: 55). (3) His grandparents Philip `the Fair' and Joanna `theMad', through which the Habsburgs had inherited the Spanish throne,but whom Philip had never known, were left in Granada, the burial placewhich had been founded by great-grandmother Isabel `the Catholic'of the Trastamara dynasty after the conquest of the town. (4) Ucko, discussing Merina The Merina is the largest ethnic group in Madagascar. Boasting a population of 3 million, which equals to about one-quarter of the country's population, they speak a Malayo-Polynesian tongue and are concentrated in the central highlands. mortuary behaviour (1969: 269), hasalready argued this. References BAUM, W. 1996. Rudolf IV. der Stifter. Graz: Verlag Styria. BECKER, M.J. 1986. An ethnographic and archaeological survey ofunusual mortuary procedures as a reflection of cultural diversity, Laparola del passato. Rivista di studi antichi 226: 31-56. 1992. 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