Mesolithic to Neolithic transitions: new results from shell-middens in the western Algarve, Portugal. (Research).

Mesolithic to Neolithic transitions: new results from shell-middens in the western Algarve, Portugal. (Research). Questions The Algarve shell-midden sites span roughly 9500 to 6500 yearsbefore the present and represent the Mesolithic and early Neolithiccultural periods (Table 1). All of the Algarve middens to be discussedcontained fire-cracked rock, and some of them have ceramics in the upperlayers. Traditionally, archaeological sites in Portugal are classifiedas Neolithic if ceramic sherds are present, following the guidelinesapplied elsewhere in Europe. This zoo-archaeological study of the shellmiddens in the western Algarve region of Portugal questions the natureof the Mesolithic-Neolithic economic transition. Does the appearance ofceramics correspond to the adoption of agriculture or livestock herding?Or did hunting and gathering continue in this area, with the minoraddition of utilitarian ceramic vessels to local tool kits? Shellfishexploitation was one aspect of Mesolithic and early Neolithicsubsistence in the Algarve, but the perennial importance of marineresources here suggests that the malacofaunas can register importantshifts in subsistence organization, regardless of whether shellfish wereprimary or "fall-back" sources of animal protein, fats, andother nutrients. The nutritional rewards of some shellfish areconsiderably greater than those of many terrestrial wild animals WILD ANIMALS. Animals in a state of nature; animals ferae naturae. Vide Animals; Ferae naturae. , suchas hares, the latter having been heavily exploited at some inland sitesin Portugal during the later Palaeolithic (e.g., Hockett & Bicho1999; see also Hockett & Haws 2001). The sites Several shell middens were identified by the authors during surveysof the western Algarve, and those tested between 1997 and 1999 yieldedthe collections used in this paper. All of the sites lie west of Faro Faro, town, PortugalFaro(fä`rō), town (1991 pop. 31,966), capital of Faro dist. and of Algarve, S Portugal. The southernmost town in Portugal, it is a seaport from which fish, fruit (especially dried figs), wine, and cork are (Figure 1), most within a few hundred meters of the modern Atlanticshore, often perched on limestone coastal cliffs 10 to 60 m above sealevel with access to rocky collection areas below (Figure 2). Rocha dasGaivotas (Mesolithic) and Vale Santo I (early Neolithic) occur in sanddunes and near good flint sources; the former lies on the moderncoastline and the latter 1 km inland. At Barranco Barranco is a district in Lima, Peru. The current mayor is Felipe Antonio Mezarina Tong and the district's postal code is 04.It is considered to be the city's most important romantic and bohemian district. das Quebradas II and Ianother coherent but somewhat older faunal series occurs in collapsedrockshelters along a narrow valley, a few hundred meters from theAtlantic shore and adjacent to a fresh water spring. Ribeira deAlcantarilha, an early Neolithic occupation, is located on a high clayterrace of a river valley, now 5 km inland, although it must have beenon an estuary at the time of occupation. In contrast to the othershellmidden sites, Ribeira de Alcantarilha is associated with shorelinesdominated by soft-sediments and the mollusc molluscmembers of the phylum Mollusca, which comprises about 50,000 species. Includes snails, slugs and the aquatic molluscs��oysters, mussels, clams, cockles, arkshells, scallop, abalone, cuttlefish, squid. species in this midden middendungheap. varyaccordingly. [FIGURES 1-2 OMITTED] The shellfish Virtually all the faunal remains in the Algarve middens are frommarine molluscs. The sediment chemistry of these sites would seemsuitable for bone preservation, as the shells are in good condition,leaving us with the conclusion that bones were seldom deposited. Theshellfish were definitely collected by humans (see below) and nearly allof them (>99%) were consumed as food; shell ornaments are present butrare. The genera commonly exploited (Table 2) have similar adult softtissue weight ranges, if scaled to human dietary need, and most of thegenera inhabit the rocky intertidal zone The intertidal zone, also known as the littoral zone, in marine aquatic environments is the area of the foreshore and seabed that is exposed to the air at low tide and submerged at high tide, i.e., the area between tide marks. : mainly mussels (Mytilus),limpets (various Patella patella(pətĕl`ə): see kneecap. species and, rarely, Siphonaria), turbans(Monodonta), and a large drill known as Thais haemastoma. At Ribeira deAlcantarilha, by contrast, carpet venus clams (Ruditapes decussatus)were particularly important, supplemented by other soft-substratespecies such as cockles cocklessaponariaofficinalis. (Acanthocardia tuberculatum and Cerastodermaedule), scallops (Pecten pecten:see scallop. maximus), bittersweets (Glycymeris sp.),striped venus clams (Chamelea gallina), and razor clams (Solen sp. orEnsis sp.). Thais occurs on a wide range of substrates but is much morecommon on rocky shores. These shellfish represent significant sources of fat andcarbohydrates in autumn, winter, and particularly spring(Fernandez-Reirez et al. 1996; Hove Hove(hōv), city (1991 pop. 65,587), East Sussex, SE England. It is a modern residential seaside resort. 1992). Well-fed mussels, forexample, may convert 4-5% of the algal algalpertaining to or caused by algae.algal infectionis very rare but systemic and udder infections are recorded. See protothecosis.algal mastitisthe algae Prototheca trispora and P. protein they consume into lipids,33-64% to carbohydrates, and 44-47% to body protein prior to thespawning season (Fidalgo et al. 1994). Dry tissue of sand-dwellingRuditapes decussatus may contain 7-8% lipids, 57-68% protein, and 6-21%glycogens prior to spawning (Beninger and Lucas 1984). Comparableinformation is not available for Thais haemastoma, but the closelyrelated subtropical sub��trop��i��cal?adj.Of, relating to, or being the geographic areas adjacent to the Tropics.subtropicalAdjectiveof the region lying between the tropics and temperate lands species, T. cattifera, can yield as much as 56%protein dry weight; 6.5% crude fat, 12% ash, and 24% carbohydrates priorto spawning (Udoh et al. 1995). The nutritional yields of these commonshellfish potentially exceeds that obtainable from common terrestrialgame such as rabbits and deer in late winter and spring. Formation of the middens The taphonomy ta��phon��o��my?n.1. The study of the conditions and processes by which organisms become fossilized.2. The conditions and processes of fossilization. of the shells was studied to determine how themiddens were formed and the molluscs were processed. Shell damageanalysis emphasized three criteria (Stiner 1994, 1999): burning by fire,indicated by shell discoloration dis��col��or��a��tion?n.1. a. The act of discoloring.b. The condition of being discolored.2. A discolored spot, smudge, or area; a stain.Noun 1. , condition of break edges, specificallysharp versus wave-abraded surfaces; and fragmentation calculated as thecompleteness index, MNI/NISP, or the minimum number of individualanimals divided by the number of identified shell fragments. Theassemblages from Ribeira de Alcantarilha had suffered extensivefragmentation at the time of excavation, barring application of thefragmentation index, and limiting burning observations to minimumfrequency estimates. The consistent lack of wave-induced wear on the shells from therocky shore Rocky shore is an intertidal area on seacoasts where solid rock predominates. Rocky shores are biologically rich environments, and make the ideal natural laboratory for studying intertidal ecology and other biological processes. sites as well as the altitude of the sites above modern sealevel, refutes the possibility that the middens were accumulated by waveaction. Sharp break edges indicate that the molluscs were collectedwhile alive, and nearly all of the breakage reflects human processingactivities. Burning damage frequencies generally are low but varysignificantly by taxonomic group Noun 1. taxonomic group - animal or plant group having natural relationstaxon, taxonomic categoryAdapid, Adapid group - extinct small mostly diurnal lower primates that fed on leaves and fruit; abundant in North America and Europe 30 to 50 million years : it is fairly common on mussels (10-13%of total NISP NISP National Industrial Symbiosis Programme (UK)NISP National Industrial Security ProgramNISP Neutron Instrument Simulation PackageNISP National Individual Security ProgramNISP Nutrition Services Incentive Program ) and Thais (2-20%), but very rare on limpets and turbans,if present at all. The soft-substrate malacofauna of Ribeira deAlcantarilha displays little in the way of burning damage, apart fromthe Thais shells. Shell completeness (MNI/NISP) also varies by taxonomicgroup. The index of shell completeness is consistently high for turbans(0.50-1.00 are complete) and limpets (0.40-.63 complete), although theformer possess a thick shell and the latter a thin shell. Thick-shelledThais is always fragmented to some degree but not as extensively as theshells of other taxa (0.13-.26 complete). Mussels are most fragmented ofall (0.05-.21 complete), even in situations where equally thin limpet limpet,marine gastropod mollusk with a simple, flattened, conical shell, found in cooler waters of the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. Certain species creep over rocks, feeding on algae during high tides, but when the tide recedes they return instinctively to the shells are not. Much of the fragmentation of mussel mussel,edible freshwater or marine bivalve mollusk. Mussels are able to move slowly by means of the muscular foot. They feed and breathe by filtering water through extensible tubes called siphons; a large mussel filters 10 gal (38 liters) of water per day. shells occurred prehistoricallyfrom a combination of heating and trampling. The differences in burningfrequencies among the mollusc genera are significant and partly linkedto fragmentation. Ethnographic accounts reveal common cooking techniquesfor bivalves, usually baking on a bed of wood ash and older shell litter(reviewed in Stiner 1994:186-193). Heating weakens the mineral structureof shells, making them more brittle under any form of mechanicalpressure (Stiner et al. 1995). Distinct processing treatments are apparent for the turbans andlimpets, which were not extensively heated, and bivalves and Thais,frequently prepared with the aid of fire. Humans removed turbans fromtheir shells with minimal damage, punching out the spire or splitting asection of the body whorl The body whorl in a mollusc shell is the most recently formed whorl of a spiral shell, terminating in the aperture. The size of the body whorl differs greatly according to shell morphology. to break the vacuum between the animal and itsshell. Heating mussels, presumably pre��sum��a��ble?adj.That can be presumed or taken for granted; reasonable as a supposition: presumable causes of the disaster. to open them, was a widespreadpractice in the Mediterranean area, and the damage patterns observed inthe Portuguese cases closely resemble those from Paleolithic sites(Stiner 1994, 1999). The gathering of large drills and the damage patterns that resultedfrom humans processing them are most closely linked to musselexploitation. Thais haemastoma is a large gastropod gastropod,member of the class Gastropoda, the largest and most successful class of mollusks (phylum Mollusca), containing over 35,000 living species and 15,000 fossil forms. with a strongcolumellar muscle and heat may have made prying them from their shellseasier. However, this does not explain the much lower frequencies ofburning damage on similarly structured turban shells. It seems likelythat, because Thais were gathered as they were encountered on musselbeds, these large drills were put on the same hot coals as musselsduring processing. Harvesting patterns Two aspects of variation in shellfish exploitation--rank orderdominance in the genera harvested (Table 3) and molluscan mol��lus��canalso mol��lus��kan ?adj.Of or relating to the mollusks.n.A mollusk. predator-preyratios--can be examined. The edible rock-dwelling shellfish differ indiet and the extent of colony formation: turbans are herbivorous herbivorous/her��biv��o��rous/ (her-biv��ah-rus) subsisting upon plants. gastropods and live scattered in loose patches; mussels are largecolonial bivalves that feed by filtering suspended particles from thewater; limpets are semi-solitary grazers, scattered in loose patches;and medium to large predatory drills (Thais haemastoma) feed on bivalvesamong other prey (Tornaritis 1987). There is much repetition in thegenera collected from hard substrates. A possible trend is apparent inthe combined faunal series (Figures 3 and 4): turbans are most abundant,sometimes in combination with mussels, in the lower cuts and decreasewith time (15 time-ordered calculable cal��cu��la��ble?adj.1. That can be calculated or estimated: calculable odds.2. Readily relied on; dependable: a calculable assistant. ratio values, [r.sub.s] = 0.75,0.80, p =.001); limpet frequencies vary essentially randomly. Theproportion of drills appears relatively stable, which is significant forthe exploitation of shellfish as a whole. [FIGURES 3-4 OMITTED] Inter-site differences could explain some of the variation inshellfish species representation, but the rocky shore sites sharesimilar settings. It is difficult to exclude the possibility thatnatural, stochastic variation in intertidal in��ter��tid��al?adj.Of or being the region between the high tide mark and the low tide mark.in community structure thatcause the relative live abundances of turbans, mussels and limpets tocycle, is responsible for the trends in species exploited. Suchvariation occurs naturally over very short time-intervals of a decade orless (on various marine provinces, compare Buss 1986; Dayton 1971;Dethier 1984; Hartnoll & Hawkins 1985; Lubchenko & Menge 1978;Petraitis 1995). While the archaeofaunal accumulations certainlyrepresent fine-scale palimpsests of multiple exploitation events thatwould average away much of the "noise" caused byshort-interval variation, it remains difficult to separate human-causedtrends in the relative frequencies of mussels, turbans, and limpets fromthose arising from local marine community dynamics. Possible indications of human predation predationForm of food getting in which one animal, the predator, eats an animal of another species, the prey, immediately after killing it or, in some cases, while it is still alive. Most predators are generalists; they eat a variety of prey species. intensity Humans' ranking of shellfish resources depends upon the searchand processing costs in relation to nutrition gained. Rock-dwellinggenera present the advantages of being exposed and easily found.Although mussels, limpets, turbans, and drills coexist within theintertidal band of rocky Mediterranean shores, only mussels tend to formtightly packed colonies (Chelazzi et al. 1994; Lintas and Seed 1994;Svane and Setyobudiandi 1996). Dense resource patches make harvestingeasier and, for this reason, may cause humans to rank mussels higherthan other, more scattered shellfish such as limpets. Differences in thedetachment and processing costs of these molluscs are alsoconsiderations. Opening bivalves is made easy by gentle heating,although they must be carried to a hearth in order to do so. Theprocessing costs for turbans and drills are heightened by their thickshell, which prehistoric humans nearly always punched, split or crackedto extract the animal. Limpets do not require heat to extract, as theshell aperture is large and cannot be closed, but prying them from rocksurfaces takes concentration and time, even with the benefit of stealthor a strong spatula spatula/spat��u��la/ (spach��u-lah) [L.]1. a wide, flat, blunt, usually flexible instrument of little thickness, used for spreading material on a smooth surface.2. a spatulate structure. . For these reasons, mussels appear to have beenespecially highly ranked by prehistoric foragers in the Algarve andelsewhere on the Mediterranean Sea. Because of their potentially largesize and high visibility, the same may be suggested for Thais whenencountered on mussel beds. A second issue, independent of the ranked values of food molluscsis their relative productivity and its effect on species abundance onrocky shores under variable levels of exploitation. Turbans, limpets,mussels, and Thais differ in the rates of individual development in thewild, properties that translate to significant differences in populationgrowth and turnover rates (sensu Stiner 2001; Stiner et al. 2000).Mussels are extremely productive, often maturing within 1-2 years ofage, turbans in about 1-3 years, so their populations replenish rapidly.Many limpet species, and especially large drills, take longer to matureon average (usually 2-5+ years), making population replacement slower(cf. Ardizzone et al. 1996; Bombace 1995; Branch 1981; Gardner et al.1993; Hockey & Bosman 1986; Kendall 1987; Koch & Wolff 1996;McLachlin & Lombard 1981; Moreno et al. 1984; Oliva & Castilla1986; Paine et al. 1985; Pombo & Escofet 1996; Richardson et al.1990; Southward & Southward 1978; Sukhotin & Kulakowski 1992).The latter pair of genera are therefore more vulnerable toover-harvesting by humans and most likely to signal this effectprehistorically in the form of body size diminution (e.g., Branch 1975;Dye et al. 1994) and/ or shifts in the abundance of high- andlow-turnover types. As a relatively large-bodied bivalve bivalve,aquatic mollusk of the class Pelecypoda ("hatchet-foot") or Bivalvia, with a laterally compressed body and a shell consisting of two valves, or movable pieces, hinged by an elastic ligament. predator, Thaisfalls at the least resilient end of the population turnover continuumand is the most sensitive to population decline under intensifiedpredation by humans. The question of harvesting pressure can be examined here bycomparing the relative frequencies of the drills to the molluscs uponwhich they normally prey; extensive shell fragmentation in the Algarvemiddens has so far prohibited diminution analysis. Table 4 presents theratios of predatory Thais to herbivorous and suspension-feeding molluscsin the time-ordered rocky shore sites. While MNI See Merom New Instructions. counts are notperfectly equivalent to mollusc biomass, MNI is permissible for thiscomparison because the molluscs eaten by humans in the Algarve havesimilar mean adult body masses, except for the carnivorous car��niv��o��rous?adj.1. Of or relating to carnivores.2. Flesh-eating or predatory: a carnivorous bird.3. drill, whichcan be somewhat larger. The question is whether the ratio of Thais isconstant or otherwise time-independent, or instead diminishes with time.If human exploitation intensified, as might be expected to result fromincreased human population density with a major transition to farming inthe area, productive intertidal mollusk mollusk:see Mollusca. molluskor molluscAny of some 75,000 species of soft-bodied invertebrate animals (phylum Mollusca), many of which are wholly or partly enclosed in a calcium carbonate shell secreted by the mantle, a soft species are unlikely to beaffected much. However, Thais would be adversely affected on account ofits nutritional desirability and large body size in combination with asubstantially lower potential for population recovery (see also Davis1987). In fact the ratio of predator to its prey is independent of time([r.sub.s] = 0.17, multiple squared r = 0.0345, N = 15, p = 0.51). Theratio is much lower at Ribeira de Alcantarilha, where the molluscassemblages are dominated by soft-substrate species, particularlyRuditapes decussatus, but this difference is probably explained byThais' preference for hard or gravel substrates). The closerelation between the relative frequencies of Thais and productivemolluscs is likely to reflect normal saturation in the balance betweenthis large drill and its prey--the number of adult Thais an intertidalcommunity can support--and secondarily, humans' opportunisticcollection of these predatory gastropods in the context of musselexploitation on rocky shores. Apparently exploitation was not sufficiently intense to reduce therelative abundance of Thais between ca. 7800 and 4800 years BC in thewestern Algarve region. The lack of evidence of Thais decline in thecontext of prehistoric shellfish harvesting is likely to mean that therewas no change in human population densities across the Mesolithic toearly Neolithic boundary. While the data are preliminary, they assist inrefining existing hypotheses that can be tested with additional,well-dated faunal cases. A question for the future is whether thismollusc predator-prey ratio changed in later Neolithic phases inresponse to harvesting pressure from humans. Context for the pottery The existence of ceramics in the two shell-midden series does notseem to be explained by downward mixing of sherds from distinctlyNeolithic components, as proposed by Zilhao for other series (2000; seealso Carvalho 2002:243). This is because other aspects of the Rocha dasGaivotas-Vale Santo I and Barranco das Quebradas II-I series do notchange with time. It is not yet clear whether the ceramic vessels were made locally.The ubiquity of fire-cracked rock in the shell middens suggests thatstone-boiling and related heating techniques were widely used in thestudy area. Under these circumstances, the benefits of adopting a fewceramic containers may have been considerable, without necessarilyaltering other aspects of subsistence or technology. Other kinds ofevidence, such as patterns of animal exploitation, help to address thepossibility of economic reorganization on the scale of a forager-farmertransition in the Algarve of southernmost Portugal. Concluding discussion Preliminary findings on the ratios of productive rocky shoremollusks, such as turbans and mussels and more sensitive drillpopulations, suggest little change in the intensity of marineexploitation by humans between the Mesolithic and early Neolithicperiods in the study area. The appearance of ceramic vessels defines theonset of the Neolithic in this region of southwestern Europe but notnecessarily that of agrarian economics (Bicho et al. 2000). This is notto say that no subsistence reorganization could have occurred in theearliest Neolithic in the study area. However, it seems unlikely inlight of the apparent lack of a substantial demographic pulse at thattime, in contrast to the story for other regions where theforager-farmer transition occurred more abruptly (e.g., Carvalho 2002;Dennell 1992; Silva and Soares 1987; Whittle 1996; Zilhao 2001). It is possible, even probable, that the study area we have chosenis biased to locally persistent forager populations of the region.Nonetheless, any general loss of habitat to invading farming populationscould suppress the food supplies of resident foragers more generally,causing them to intensify their use of those resources that remainedaccessible to them. Marine shellfish tended to be major sources ofanimal protein in this region prehistorically. The lack of change in therelative abundance of intertidal molluscs to slow-growing large drillsin the archaeofaunal assemblages suggests that there was no less or morepredator pressure on marine resources, or by extension, humandemographic growth at this time. At least two hypotheses for the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition inthe Algarve have been proposed:maritime pioneer colonization from thenorth/northwest, marked by the abrupt intrusion of a full-blown farmingand herding adaptation (Zilhao 2001); and gradual acculturation acculturation,culture changes resulting from contact among various societies over time. Contact may have distinct results, such as the borrowing of certain traits by one culture from another, or the relative fusion of separate cultures. of, orat least exchange with, indigenous Mesolithic foragers (Silva and Soares1987).These are not necessarily conflicting viewpoints, as an extendedperiod of forager-farmer coexistence is considered likely in southernPortugal (Carvalho 2002), essentially a heterogenous (spelling) heterogenous - It's spelled heterogeneous. patchwork of humanpopulations and economic systems. The findings presented by this first study of marine shells onlysharpen the questions being asked of the Algarve midden sites,underscoring their considerable research potential and the need foradditional testing and dating of Algarve coastal and inland sites.Table 1. Sites, radiocarbon dates, and presence/absence of ceramicsfor the marine shell assemblages from the western Algarve, Portugal. Cut Date LaboratorySite name (cm bd) ybp ([dagger]) codeRibeira de Alcantarilha - 6120 [+ or -] 70 Wk-6672 - 6160 [+ or -] 60 Wk-6851Vale Santo I - 6340 [+ or -] 120 Wk-6673Rocha das Gaivotas - 6890 [+ or -] 70 Wk-6075Barranco das Quebrades II 0-22 7980 [+ or -] 80 Wk-8940 60-70 8400 [+ or -] 60 Wk-8951Barranco das Quebradas I 40-50 8580 [+ or -] 70 Wk-8939 110-120 8640 [+ or -] 70 Wk-8950 CalibratedSite name date BC CeramicsRibeira de Alcantarilha 5207-4859 Present in all units 5227-4999 Present in all unitsVale Santo I 5470-5145 Present in all unitsRocha das Gaivotas 5839-5671 None in units studiedBarranco das Quebrades II 7053-6771 Present on surface only 7569-7377 NoneBarranco das Quebradas I 7707-7543 None 7731-7587 None([dagger]) Because all dates were obtained on marine shell, it isexpected that the true ages of these sites are somewhat younger,with a correction factor of 360 [+ or -] 35 years subtracted fromthe initial value, after Soares (1993). Calibration of theradiocarbon dates (BC, 1 sigma) was carried out using CALIB 25.Fire-cracked rock is abundant in every assemblage.Table 2. Marine mollusk species identified in the Algarve shellmiddens, along with information on diet, preferred substrate, andapproximate adult shell length. Name CommonFamily Genus species source nameSCAPHOPODADentaliidae Dentalium sp. - tusk shell ([section])GASTROPODAPatellidae Patella caerulea * Linne limpet Patella vulgata * Linne limpet Patella Pennant limpet depressa=intermedia * Patella aspera * Lamarck limpet Patella rustica=lusitanica * Gmelin limpetSiphonariidae Siphonaria sp. * - false limpetTrochidae Monodonta lineata * da Costa turban Gibbula sp. ([dagger]) - small top shellMuricidae Urosalpinx cinerea Say oyster drill ([dagger])Thaididae Thais haemastoma * Linne dog winkle/drillNassariidae Nassarius=Hinia Linne netted dog whelk reticulata ([dagger])BIVALVIAMytilidae Mytilus Lamarck mussel galloprovincialis * Mytilus edulis * Linne musselPectinidae Pecten maximus * Linne giant scallopOstreidae Ostrea edulus * Linne flat oysterGlycymeridae Glycymeris sp. - bittersweet ([section])Cardiidae Acanthocardia=Cardium Linne cockle tuberculatum * Cerastoderma=Cardium Linne cockle edule *Veneridae Ruditapes=Tapes Linne carpet venus decussatus * Chamelea=Venus gallina * Linne striped venusSolenidae Solen marginatus * Montagu razor clam Ensis siliqua * Linne razer clam AdultFamily Genus species Diet Substrate size (mm)SCAPHOPODADentaliidae Dentalium sp. C m,s 35-50 ([section])GASTROPODAPatellidae Patella caerulea * H r 30-45 Patella vulgata * H r 30-45 Patella H r 30-45 depressa=intermedia * Patella aspera * H r 30-45 Patella H r 25-30 rustica=lusitanica *Siphonariidae Siphonaria sp. * H r 20-30Trochidae Monodonta lineata * H r 20-35 Gibbula sp. ([dagger]) H r,s,w 10-15Muricidae Urosalpinx cinerea C s,m,r 10-15 ([dagger])Thaididae Thais haemastoma * C r 60-75Nassariidae Nassarius=Hinia SC s,m 15-22 reticulata ([dagger])BIVALVIAMytilidae Mytilus F r 20-100 galloprovincialis * Mytilus edulis * F r 20-100Pectinidae Pecten maximus * F s 100+Ostreidae Ostrea edulus * F r,s,m 100+Glycymeridae Glycymeris sp. F s 30-80 ([section])Cardiidae Acanthocardia=Cardium F s,m,g 25-90 tuberculatum * Cerastoderma=Cardium F s,m,g 30-50 edule *Veneridae Ruditapes=Tapes F s 40-70 decussatus * Chamelea=Venus gallina * F s 35-40Solenidae Solen marginatus * F s 80-120 Ensis siliqua * F s 150-200Sources: Hayward and Ryland 1995; Saldanha 1995; Tornaritis 1987.(*) used mainly as a food source; ([section]) ornament; ([dagger])incidental inclusion, probably arrived attached to shell of a larger,edible marine mollusk. Mollusk diet codes are (H) herbivore;(SC) scavenger; (F) filter feeder; (C) carnivore. Substrate codes are(r) rock and other firm surfaces; (m) mud; (s) sand; (w) weeds;(g) gravel or coarse sand.Table 3. Relative frequencies (as a fraction of total MNI=1) ofrock-dwelling marine mollusks consumed as food by humans intime-ordered midden assemblages. (grazer) (filter-feeder)Site, trench & cut turbans musselsVale Santo: Surface 0.02 0.71 1 0.05 0.64 2 - ** 3 - **Rocha das Gaivotas: Surface 0.02 0.57 T1, 3 - * T1, 6 - ** T1, 7 - 0.80 T1, 8 - 0.73 T1, 9 - 0.59 T1, 11 0.02 0.55 T1, 12 - ** T1, 13 - ** T3, B-C 5 - **Barranco das Quebradas II: 0-22 cm 0.19 0.30 22-30 cm 0.25 0.28 30-40 cm 0.32 0.11Barranco das Quebradas I: 0-30 cm 0.63 0.07 30-40 cm 0.62 0.07 40-45 cm 0.60 0.03 50-60 cm 0.31 0.32 60-70 cm 0.29 0.28 (grazer) (carnivore) totalSite, trench & cut limpets Thais MNIVale Santo: Surface 0.11 0.15 84 1 0.13 0.18 39 2 * * 7 3 - ** 9Rocha das Gaivotas: Surface 0.19 0.21 209 T1, 3 - * 3 T1, 6 * * 10 T1, 7 0.18 0.02 45 T1, 8 0.25 0.02 55 T1, 9 0.37 0.04 133 T1, 11 0.41 0.02 54 T1, 12 * - 12 T1, 13 * - 10 T3, B-C 5 * * 21Barranco das Quebradas II: 0-22 cm 0.38 0.13 177 22-30 cm 0.29 0.18 187 30-40 cm 0.48 0.08 179Barranco das Quebradas I: 0-30 cm 0.22 0.07 199 30-40 cm 0.13 0.18 68 40-45 cm 0.19 0.17 93 50-60 cm 0.23 0.13 172 60-70 cm 0.23 0.19 92Note: A few large Siphonaria specimens (pulminates) are presentamong the limpet-shaped shellfish, apparently also exploited asfood. (*) present or (**) dominant, but total MNI is too small forcalculation. Rare oysters have been excluded from consideration.Table 4. Ratio of Thais haemastoma, a large carnivorous drill, tothe total number of herbivorous and filter-feeding mollusks in rockyshore sites, arranged in chrono-stratigraphic order. Thais herbivore & PredatorSite MNI filter-feeder MNI ratioVale Santo I 22 118 0.16Rocha das Gaivotas 59 498 0.11Barranco das Quebrades II 72 471 0.13Barranco das Quebradas I 84 540 0.13Predator ratio is calculated as Thais MNI, divided by the sum ofThais MNI and herbivore (grazing limpet and turban) and filter-feeder(mussel, clam and cockle) MNI. Only the larger assemblages areconsidered. Acknowledgments This research was supported by grant from the Fundacao para aCiencia e Tecnologia PRAXIS/PCSH/C/HAR/ 70/96 (to N.F.B.), and the U.S.National Science Foundation (to M.C.S., SBR-9511894). References ARDIZZONE, G. D., A. BELLUSCIO, M. F. GRAVINA & A. SOMASCHINL1996. 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Bicho, John Lindly & Reid Ferring * * Stiner, Dept. of Anthropology, University of Arizona (body, education) University of Arizona - The University was founded in 1885 as a Land Grant institution with a three-fold mission of teaching, research and public service. , Tucson, AZ85721-0030, USA. mstiner@u.arizona.edu Bicho, Dept. de Historia,Arqueologia e Patrimonio, FCHS FCHS Fort Collins High School (Colorado)FCHS Frederick County Humane SocietyFCHS Fayette County High School (Fayetteville, GA)FCHS Floyd County High School (Floyd, VA), Universidade do Algarve, Campus deGambelas, 8000 Faro, Portugal. nbicho@ualg.pt Lindly, SWCA SWCA Soil and Water Conservation AssistanceSWCA Southeastern Writing Center AssociationSWCA Sine Wave Communications AdapterSWCA Southeastern Writing Centers AssociationSWCA Southwest Washington Contractors Association (Vancouver, WA), PhoenixOffice, 2120 North Central Ave., Suite 130, Phoenix, Arizona 85004, USA.jlindly@swca.com Ferring, Institute of Applied Sciences, University ofNorth Texas, P.O. Box 13078, Denton, TX 76203-3078, USA. ferring@unt.edu Received 3 January 2002; Revised 5 November 2002; Accepted 9January 2003.