Migration from China.

Migration from China. Tradition holds that the Chinese were a non-migratory people:Generally speaking, no Chinese will leave his home to seek his fortuneat a distance unless he is in some way driven to do so ... No Chineseleaves Chinese leavesNoun, plthe edible leaves of a Chinese cabbage his home not intending to return. His hope is always to come backrich, to die and be buried where his ancestors are buried.Yet, the reality was different. Southward expansion is one of thegreat themes of Chinese history as the Han, over the centuries,progressively colonized beyond the Yangzi.(2) Warfare and famine led tocomplex patterns of expulsion and flight. In times of peace andprosperity, thousands moved to towns, as sojourners perhaps, with theintention of returning, but spending most of their lives from theirhomes. The inhabitants of southern China had broader horizons, asSterling Seagrave Sterling Seagrave is best-selling author of The Soong Dynasty.Seagrave grew up on the China-Burma border, the fifth generation of an American family living in the Orient for nearly two centuries (his father was Dr. Gordon Seagrave, author of Burma Surgeon). has shown in a recent, somewhat swashbuckling book,and they established trading diasporas throughout what is now SoutheastAsia and beyond into the Indian Ocean.(3) The Northern Chinese, on theother hand, rarely looked beyond the bounds of the Middle Kingdom --until recently, when their leaders realized that if China was to regainthe position it had held as the world's largest economy for so muchof human history, it must come to some kind of accommodation with theincreasingly interdependent global community.Population migration is very much part of that accommodation as it isa clear physical link between China and the international economy. Therecent evolution of movements, not just from China but also from theperipheral areas of Hong Kong The following is a list of areas of Hong Kong. Hong Kong IslandCentral and Western District Central Admiralty and Taiwan, which make up what can becalled "Greater China," will be considered in this article. Amajor theme is that the recent patterns cannot be understood withoutsome appreciation of past migration. While there are significantdifferences between present movement from China and past migrations,there are also important continuities, and these can best be appreciatedwithin an evolutionary framework.Three very broad periods are identified in the recent history ofChina. The first is the hundred years from the middle of the nineteenthcentury to the foundation of the People's Republic of China in1949. The middle of the nineteenth century is but an approximate time tostart our considerations. Hong Kong Hong Kong(hŏng kŏng), Mandarin Xianggang, special administrative region of China, formerly a British crown colony (2005 est. pop. 6,899,000), land area 422 sq mi (1,092 sq km), adjacent to Guangdong prov. was established as a British colonyin 1841 and emigration emigration:see immigration; migration. began almost immediately thereafter.(4) The year1860, however, is perhaps a more appropriate beginning point as in thatyear the late Qing restrictions on emigration were lifted and theChinese accepted that their nationals had the right to go overseas.(5)Although migration from China had occurred before the mid-nineteenthcentury and trade was sponsored during the Ming dynasty Ming dynasty(1368–1644) Chinese dynasty that provided an interval of native rule between eras of Mongol and Manchu dominance. The Ming, one of the most stable but autocratic of dynasties, extended Chinese influence farther than did any other native rulers of China. , emigration wasnever officially encouraged an there were periods under the Oing when itwas banned totally and returned migrants might pay with their lives.(6)The period from the middle of the nineteenth century to the middle ofthe twentieth century was one of pronounced, if fluctuating, emigrationto various destinations dominated by males who saw themselves goingoverseas temporarily While there were those who settled permanently,this period, for a variety of reasons, was dominated by sojourners.The second period covers the socialist economy Noun 1. socialist economy - an economic system based on state ownership of capitalsocialismcommunism - a form of socialism that abolishes private ownershipInternational - any of several international socialist organizations of Mao Zedong Mao Zedongor Mao Tse-tung(mou dzŭ-dng), 1893–1976, founder of the People's Republic of China. and hisimmediate successors from the formation of the People's Republic in1949 to the end of 1978. This was a period during which, as before 1850,there were times when migration in general was tightly controlled by thestate and emigration was essentially prohibited.In December 1978, at the Third Plenum of the Eleventh CentralCommittee of the Chinese Communist Party Chinese Communist party:see Communist party, in China. Chinese Communist Party (CCP)Political party founded in China in 1921 by Chen Duxiu, Li Dazhao, Mao Zedong, and others. , China shifted direction towarda more open economy through the road to "socialistmodernization." Formal diplomatic links with the United States United States,officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. wereestablished from 1 January 1979, formally representing the linking ofChina to the outside world. This third period, from the beginning, of1979, saw migration increase in volume, not to levels seen during thefirst period perhaps, but in terms of complexity and in the types ofmigrants involved. This article will focus primarily on this increasingcomplexity since 1979, but will first consider briefly the earlierperiods to provide an essential backdrop against which more recentmovements can be viewed.The Emigration between 1850 and 1949Although the Chinese have been moving for centuries, it was only inthe nineteenth century that the diaspora began in earnest. Discoveriesof gold in the mountains of the Western United States Noun 1. western United States - the region of the United States lying to the west of the Mississippi RiverWestSanta Fe Trail - a trail that extends from Missouri to New Mexico; an important route for settlers moving west in the 19th century from 1848, inSouthern Australia from 1851, and in Western Canada This article is about the region in Canada. For the school in Calgary, see Western Canada High School.Western Canada, commonly referred to as the West from 1858 set inmotion a flow of people from China that, over the next eight decades,would include millions of individuals. The vast majority of migrantswere never involved in gold-mining and never reached the more distantdestinations, but those returning in the earliest periods wereinstrumental in spreading information about a world beyond the confinesof Chinese towns and villages. Some left China as free migrants, payingtheir own way. Many more left as indentured or contract laborersenlisted directly by governments or by labor recruiters. Yet others lefton the "credit-ticket" system where their expenses wereadvanced to them and they were expected to pay off their debts afterreaching their destination.(7) The vast majority of the migrants weremales who expected to return home to their families or to marry aftertheir time overseas. They were the sojourners, and the fact that manydied outside of China or became trapped through indebtedness or inertiadoes not deny the essentially circular nature of this migrationsystem.(8) However, Chinese did settle overseas, particularly wherewomen also migrated, or were allowed to. Hence, large and fairly stableoverseas communities had been established before the outbreak of theSecond World War with between 8.5 and 9 million Chinese outside ofChina, the vast majority of whom were in Southeast Asia, or theNanyang.(9) The network was, however, much more extensive, withcommunities established throughout Spanish America Spanish AmericaThe former Spanish possessions in the New World, including most of South and Central America, Mexico, Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, and other small islands in the Caribbean Sea. , the Caribbean, thePacific Islands, South Africa South Africa,Afrikaans Suid-Afrika, officially Republic of South Africa, republic (2005 est. pop. 44,344,000), 471,442 sq mi (1,221,037 sq km), S Africa. , North America North America,third largest continent (1990 est. pop. 365,000,000), c.9,400,000 sq mi (24,346,000 sq km), the northern of the two continents of the Western Hemisphere. and Australasia.This emigration from China was highly localized and controlledthrough those parts of China annexed as colonies: Hong Kong, Macau andthe "treaty ports," that is, the ports from which foreignmerchants were allowed to trade. Hong Kong and Macau, on either side ofthe Pearl River Delta The Pearl River Delta Region (PRD) in China occupies the low-lying areas alongside the Pearl River estuary where the Pearl river flows into the South China Sea. Since the "Open Door Policy" was adopted by the Communist Party of China in the late 1970s, the portion of the delta in in South Central Guangdong Province Noun 1. Guangdong province - a province in southern ChinaGuangdong, Kwangtung , and Amoy andShantou (Swatow) in Eastern Guangdong were the principal ports. In thehinterlands, the origins of the migrants were yet more localized. Themovements to North America were almost entirely from four districts inthe Western Pearl River Delta and mainly from one of these districts,Taishan (Toishan). Origins in Eastern Guangdong and Fujian were equallylocalized and the limited number of surnames among the overseas Chinese A list of famous people with Chinese ancestry living outside of the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China. Leaders and politiciansAsiaSteve Chia, politician, Singapore 谢镜? has been observed, reflecting the dominance of a small number oflineages and villages in the process.(10) The migration demonstrates aclassic chain effect based upon areas of quite limited extent.It has been estimated that, between the 1850s and 1939, over sixmillion people moved from Hong Kong alone. Some individuals however,would have made several overseas trips in their lifetimes.(11) In the1850s, the vast majority moved to North America and Australia while,from the 1870s onwards, Singapore and the Malay states Malay States:see Malaysia. emerged as theprincipal destinations. This switch in destination was brought about bytwo concurrent processes. First, the "great white walls" ofthe exclusion policies were progressively erected around the UnitedStates, Canada, Australia and New Zealand New Zealand(zē`lənd), island country (2005 est. pop. 4,035,000), 104,454 sq mi (270,534 sq km), in the S Pacific Ocean, over 1,000 mi (1,600 km) SE of Australia. The capital is Wellington; the largest city and leading port is Auckland. -- policies specificallydesigned to keep Asians out.(12) Second, the colonial governments inSoutheast Asia, primarily the British, were seeking labor to develop theeconomies of territories they were rapidly absorbing.By the turn of the century, over 100,000 people a year were leavingboth Hong Kong and Amoy for the Nanyang. The vast majority were almostcertainly poor peasants from villages and small towns in Southern Chinaho left to become laborers in both rural and urban activities, butmigrants also included free settlers. They left an impoverished SouthernChina to work tin and develop market gardening market gardening,cultivation, on suburban land of high value, of vegetables and flowers for the supply of nearby cities. Heavy fertilizing and the planting of successive crops are employed to obtain continuous returns from the acreage. in the Malay peninsula Malay Peninsula(məlā`, mā`lā), southern extremity (c.70,000 sq mi/181,300 sq km) of the continent of Asia, lying between the Andaman Sea of the Indian Ocean and the Strait of Malacca on the west and the Gulf of Thailand and the ,to open up tobacco and rubber plantations in Sumatra and Sarawakrespectively and to become rickshaw pullers and prostitutes inSingapore.(13) Also, a minority who had considerable urban experience,and some education and capital moved to extend trade and entrepreneurialactivities. Perhaps of greatest significance, however, was that thedestination areas provided opportunities for poorer migrants to becomesuccessful through hard work and personal contracts. There was thusconsiderable scope for economic and social mobility, resulting in a muchgreater range of Chinese migrants in terms of background and activities.By the 1930s, with the recession in the capitalist world, SoutheastAsian destinations were becoming restricted to further Chineseimmigration immigration,entrance of a person (an alien) into a new country for the purpose of establishing permanent residence. Motives for immigration, like those for migration generally, are often economic, although religious or political factors may be very important. . This was followed by 12 years of disruption caused by theSino-Japanese War, the Second World War, and the civil war between theCommunist and Kuomintang armies. This period culminated with massexoduses of two to three million people to Hong Kong and Taiwan upon thetriumph of the Communist party Communist party, in ChinaCommunist party,in China, ruling party of the world's most populous nation since 1949 and most important Communist party in the world since the disintegration of the USSR in 1991. in 1949. China subsequently isolateditself from the capitalist world and relatively few were able to leave.The great phase of migration that had formed the basis of a globalnetwork of overseas Chinese was over. That basis is fundamental for anyanalyses of current migration as, since the mid-1960s, Chinese haveprogressively been drawn into a new phase of emigration which clearlybuilds upon the global network established by earlier migrations.Emigration between 1950 and 1978The period from 1950 to 1978 can be seen as one of restricted orcontrolled migration from China itself, but one of gradually increasingmovements from the "peripheral" areas of Hong Kong and Taiwan.It is necessary to consider these two areas in any discussion ofmigration from China as the majority of those who left these areas hadbeen born in China itself, having been part of the exodus of the late1940s. Any distinction between China and Hong Kong or Taiwan thusbecomes blurred, with the migration fields of the three areas beinginextricably in��ex��tri��ca��ble?adj.1. a. So intricate or entangled as to make escape impossible: an inextricable maze; an inextricable web of deceit.b. linked.The main flow out of China during this period was to Hong Kong witharound 40,000 persons a year entering the British colony during the1950s. This figure dropped to 10,000 during the 1960s, except during thechaotic conditions in 1962 following the great famine Great Famine can refer to multiple historical famines that are referred to as the "Great Famine". Great Famine of 1315-1317 - Northern European famine of the 14th century. when over 120,000entered Hong Kong in over a six-week period, over half of whom werearrested and deported.(14) Rustification, or the "sendingdown" of urban dwellers to rural areas, was prominent in the early1960s as China placed its development priority on the agriculturalregions. This turning inwards of migration was intensified from 1966with the onset of the Cultural Revolution when movement overseas wasprohibited in a way reminiscent of much earlier Qing policies. Excludingmigrations to Hong Kong, movements from China during this period tendedto be restricted to socialist bloc countries with, for example, morethan 11,000 Chinese students and scholars being sent to the Soviet Unionto study in the 1950s and over 13,006 engineers, technicians and supportstaff being sent to Tanzania to assist with railway construction in theearly 1970s.There were few destinations open to ethnic Chinese peoples in the1950s, either for settlement or for work. One of these was the UnitedKingdom which, until 1962, allowed virtual free access to Commonwealthcitizens to settle. Because villagers of the New Territories of HongKong were able to prove unequivocally that they had been born on whatthe British considered their territory, there developed a migration flowof rice farmers to set up Chinese restaurants throughout the UnitedKingdom. However, this migration slowed with progressive restrictions onimmigrants into Britain from 1962 following a wave of immigration fromnew Commonwealth countries.Meanwhile, major changes to the immigration policies of the countriesof traditional European settlement in North America and Australasia weretaking place from the mid-1960s. Although the infamous exclusion acts ofthe United States had been abolished from the end of the Second WorldWar, no significant impact on immigration flows was felt until afterimplementation of the 1965 Immigration Act An Immigration Act is a law regulating immigration. A number of countries have had Immigration Acts: Canada Immigration Act, 1869 Immigration Act, 1906 , which effectively removedall discriminatory quotas. Slightly earlier, in January 1962, Canadaintroduced revised immigration regulations that effectively terminatedthe White Canada policy, and Australia some 10 years later ended its ownwhite immigration policies. Thus, over the decade beginning in the early1960s, the three major countries of immigration radically adjusted theirpolicies. This factor has been important in shifting the globalmigration system from one with origins in Europe to one with origins inAsia and Latin America Latin America,the Spanish-speaking, Portuguese-speaking, and French-speaking countries (except Canada) of North America, South America, Central America, and the West Indies. . Migration from Asian countries accounted foronly 7.8, 5.5 and 4.0 percent of the immigration in the early 1960s tothe United States, Canada and Australia respectively. By the early1990s, these proportions had increased to around 38, 50 and 40 percentrespectively. This shift in the nature of the global migration systempreceded but has reinforced the transformation that has occurred in theChinese economy and society since December 1978. As China has opened tothe outside world with its reform program, it has also been able toparticipate in a very different international context for transnationalpopulation mobility.Emigration since 1979The momentous decisions taken in December 1978 to open the Chineseeconomy to the outside world implicitly and explicitly increased contactwith foreigners, and thus migration. It is impossible to place anyprecise date after which population movements began to increase into andout of China. For example, Lynn White argues that the ability of thestate to control internal population mobility was being eroded in theShanghai region from as early as 1973. The implementation of the reformrom 1979 forms a more convenient date with the evolution of free marketsand the accumulation of personal wealth, allowing more people greaterfreedom to move. Official recognition of the increasing migration didnot come, however, until much later and in 1985 two significantdevelopments occurred. First, in September of that year, thePeople's Congress enacted the issuing of identity cards to allresidents of China, which meant that it became much easier for people tomove around. Instead of having to obtain permission their work unit andfrom other local authorities, people could now move and obtainemployment simply by using their identity card. Second, in November 1985the Emigration and Immigration Law This article or section contains information about scheduled or expected future events.It may contain tentative information; the content may change as the event approaches and more information becomes available. was adopted which guaranteed therights of China's citizens to travel outside China and allowedthose who wished to leave the country for private reasons to do so.The implementation of these laws, however, did not mean that therewas complete freedom of movement. From a practical point of view, thereare significant blockages in transport infrastructure that can maketravel within, to and from China difficult at the best of times. Moreimportant, it is still a long and complex job to obtain a passport.Permission has to be sought from a variety of sources including currentemployer, foreign employer or overseas educational institution, andclearance has to be obtained from the Public Security Bureau. It is aprocedure that may not be entirely free from abuse, and personal contact(guanxi) is not an insignificant element in charting a course throughthe bureaucracy. Excluding diplomatic passports, there are two maintypes of Chinese passport. The passport for public uses (yin gong) isgranted to businessmen and students and is valid for either two or fiveyears. The passport for private uses (yin si) is granted to thoseaccompanying spouses or joining relatives overseas and is valid for fiveyears. Also, travel permits and entry and exit passes are granted whichcan be used for movement to Hong Kong for business, pleasure orsettlement.The migrations since 1979 have been increasing in volume, but also incomplexity. It is thus useful to subdivide TO SUBDIVIDE. To divide a part of a thing which has already been divided. For example, when a person dies leaving children, and grandchildren, the children of one of his own who is dead, his property is divided into as many shares as he had children, including the deceased, and the share the migrants into varioustypes, even if no single typology typology/ty��pol��o��gy/ (ti-pol��ah-je) the study of types; the science of classifying, as bacteria according to type. typologythe study of types; the science of classifying, as bacteria according to type. in the social sciences can everproduce watertight divisions. The recent population migration from Chinacan be divided into four major, if not entirely mutually exclusive Adj. 1. mutually exclusive - unable to be both true at the same timecontradictoryincompatible - not compatible; "incompatible personalities"; "incompatible colors" ,types: settlers, students, contract laborers and illegal migrants. Thesefour types will be examined below with emphasis given to settlers and tostudents although, for reasons that will become clear, these two typesneed to be combined for some parts of the discussion.Settler MigrantsThe Chinese have been an important participant in these new flows andthe numbers of immigrants to the main settlement countries are shown intable 1. The data cover only part, although the largest part, of ethnicChinese migration Chinese migration (also known as the Chinese Diaspora) first occurred thousands of years ago, but the mass migration that occurred from the 19th century to 1949 was mainly caused by wars and starvation in mainland China as well as political corruption. . Much of the migration from Singapore, Malaysia andVietnam in particular has been made up of ethnic Chinese. The focus inthis article is on the migration out of China itself rather than onethnic Chinese migration but, as stressed above, Hong Kong and Taiwancannot be excluded from the discussion. It is clear that there has beena marked increase in migration from China to the United States andCanada from the early 1980s to the early 1990s. Some 57,761 people fromChina entered the United States during fiscal year 1992 to 1993 alonecompared with just under 80,000 for the five year period 1982 to 1987.The longer and more established flows from Hong Kong and Taiwan show amore steady flow to the United States, although in both cases there hadbeen a marked increase in movement to Canada and Australia over the sameperiod. With the notable exception of migration from Hong Kong and Chinato Canada (for which there has been a considerable backlog inapplications), there was a slowdown in migration during the most recentyear for which there are available data, 1993 to 1994 over 1992 to 1993.This was partially due to exceptional circumstances in the migrationfrom China to the United States during 1992 to 1993, discussed below,and partly due to the recession in the developed economies, particularlyin Australia. A significant, if gradually declining, proportion ofmigrants leaving Hong Kong and Taiwan have been those who were born inChina. This emphasizes the difficulty of attempting to separate a HongKong or Taiwan migration from that of China or, conversely, of excludingHong Kong or Taiwan from any consideration of emigration from China.Around 70 percent of the 75,000 who entered the United States from HongKong during the decade of the 1960s had been born in China. By the early1990s, this proportion has virtually reversed, with 62 to 65 percent ofthose admitted from Hong Kong being born in Hong kong itself. Althoughdata on migration from Taiwan and China were not recorded separatelyuntil 1982, we can be fairly certain that the vast majority of the 9,657recorded as moving from China during the 1950s and the 34,764 movingduring the 1960s were from Taiwan. How many of these had been born inChina remains unknown. By 1982, about 82 percent of those admitted tothe United States from Taiwan had been born in Taiwan, while thisproportion had further increased to about 91 percent by 1993. A somewhatsimilar picture can be observed for the migration to Canada. Forexample, in the mid 1970s, around 60 percent of those admitted from HongKong had been born there while, by the early 1990s, this proportion hadincreased to over 70 percent. This pattern is what one would expect asthe effects of the waves of migration from mainland China of the late1940s have begun to fade, especially in the case of Taiwan, where therehas been little population interaction with China since 1949.[TABULAR DATA 1 OMITTED]Migration from China to Hong Kong has continued right through to thepresent. There was a significant wave of movement in the late 1970s,with the net addition of some 400,000 from China between calendar years1976 and 1981 and the continued intake of around 2 7,000 every yearduring the 1980s. The latter figure was based upon an informal agreementbetween Hong Kong and Chinese authorities to limit the migration to 75 aday.(15) This was an attempt, which was largely successful, to controlillegal migration from China. All those leaving must have permissionfrom Chinese authorities to do so; all others are considered to beillegal immigrants and when caught in Hong Kong are repatriated. Thesemigrants are primarily dependants of Hong Kong residents (wives andchildren), and their numbers have been steadily increased to 150 a dayover the last two years to avoid a sudden influx once Hong Kong becomespart of China from 1 July 1997. This population flow of settlers hasbeen the largest legal flow from China to a single destination. Theactual number of immigrants from China admitted to the United Statesduring fiscal year 1993 was larger than the flow to Hong Kong but that,as will be seen below, was an exceptional year for very specificreasons.The data thus suggest that there has been substantial step migrationfrom China to overseas destinations through Taiwan and Hong Kong whichhas continued through to the present in the case of Hong Kong. That is,many of those who left China in the late 1940s for Taiwan and Hong Kongwere among the first to move to North America and Australasia onceimmigration restrictions were removed. Unfortunately, the available dataon immigration to the major destination countries do not allow us todisaggregate See disaggregated. the flows from either Taiwan or Hong Kong on the basis ofplace of birth. Hence, we do not know if the characteristics of theChina-born are in any way different from those of the Hong Kong-born orthe Taiwan-born. Given that the majority of step movers have almostcertainly spent considerable time in either Hong Kong or Taiwan and thatHong Kong's population in particular has been largely a creation ofmigration from China, any distinction based simply upon place of birthis likely to be spurious. Emigrants from China are also likely to figureamong the well-educated and wealthy who make up so much of the emigrant EMIGRANT. One who quits his country for any lawful reason, with a design to settle elsewhere, and who takes his family and property, if he has any, with him. Vatt. b. 1, c. 19, Sec. 224. flows from both Hong Kong and Taiwan. Not that these migrants arenecessarily extremely rich, they are not, but the flows out of Hong Kongare heavily biased towards well-educated professionals--the middleclasses--and migrants from Hong Kong and Taiwan have together dominatedthe business migration programs of Australia, Canada and NewZealand.(16)Turning to direct emigration from China itself, we have already seenthat family dependants make up the major part of the migration to HongKong. So, too, does family reunification Family reunification is a recognized reason for immigration in many countries. The presence of one or more family members in a certain country, therefore, enables the rest of the family to immigrate to that country as well. make up a substantial part,probably the greater part, of the movement to the other majordestinations. For example, in 1992, of the 10,429 immigrants from Chinaadmitted into Canada, 6,477 came under the family class and anadditional 512 as "assisted relatives."(17) Up to fiscal year1992, most of the immigrants admitted to the United States came underfamily-sponsored preferences or as immediate relatives of U.S. citizens.However, there are exceptions to this pattern. In calendar year 1991 inCanada, and fiscal years 1993 and 1994 in the United States, there weresubstantial numbers of independent migrants and those coming underemployment-based preferences respectively. The latter for the UnitedStates accounted for 37,131 of the 57,775 immigrants admitted from Chinain 1993 and 31,913 of the 47,964 admitted in 1994. Rather thanindicating surges of an independent migration of professionals orskilled migrants directly from China, these figures indicate thegranting of immigrant status to students who were in these countriesaround the time of the massacre in Tiananmen Square Tiananmen Square,large public square in Beijing, China, on the southern edge of the Inner or Tatar City. The square, named for its Gate of Heavenly Peace (Tiananmen), contains the monument to the heroes of the revolution, the Great Hall of the People, the museum of . In the UnitedStates, the Students Protection Act of 1992 allowed thousands ofstudents who had been living in the country continuously to adjust topermanent status. Canada and Australia made similar provisions. Hence,the distinction between the settlers and the student migration system inthe case of movement from China is somewhat artificial.Student MigrantsThe sending abroad of students for training is one important way tofacilitate the transfer of technology. Sometimes, the ideas learned havemuch greater consequences than anticipated and returning students canhave a profound impact on their home societies. For example, many of theearly revolutionary leaders of China, including Sun Yat-sen Sun Yat-sen(sn yät-sĕn), Mandarin Sun Wen, 1866–1925, Chinese revolutionary. He was born near Guangzhou into a farm-owning family. (a studentin Hong Kong and in Hawaii), Zhou Enlai Zhou Enlaior Chou En-lai(both: jō ĕn-lī), 1898–1976, Chinese Communist leader. A member of a noted Mandarin family, he was educated in China at an American-supported school and a university in Japan. and Deng Xiaoping Deng Xiaopingor Teng Hsiao-p'ing(both: dŭng` shou`pĭng`), 1904–97, Chinese revolutionary and government leader, b. Sichuan prov. (both studentsin Paris), absorbed revolutionary ideas in destination areas. A morerecent generation of students was trained in the Soviet Union but, asthe settler migration system has changed, so too has the student system.There were very few students from China in the United States in 1 9 7 8;only 2 8 were recorded at American universities.(18) By the early 1990s,China was the leading source of foreign students in the United States,with some 44,360, or 10 percent, of all foreign students there in 1993to 1994. This was clearly the result or China's open door policy"to promote international exchange."(19) Hong Kong and Taiwan,whose history of sending large numbers of students to the United Statesgoes back sever-al d-ecades, together added over 5 1,000 more studentsto the U. S. in 1993 to 1994. China has also emerged as a leading sourceof students to Canada and Australia, with between four and five thousandsent to both countries in 1992 and 1994, although these amounts are farbelow the numbers of students from Hong Kong to those destinations.However, the definition of what constitutes a student differs among thethree destination countries. If we limit the analyses to the highestlevels of tertiary education Tertiary education, also referred to as third-stage, third level education, or higher education, is the educational level following the completion of a school providing a secondary education, such as a high school, secondary school, or gymnasium. , we find that China is a leading source ofpostgraduate students. Students from Hong Kong are often found at morejunior levels, including high school. In the early 1990s, there werealso over 12,500 students from China at postsecondary institutions inJapan.Return Movements of Students and SettlersThe essential question, primarily concerning students but also tosome extent settlers, is the extent to which they will return to China.The experience of student migration from other East Asian countriesindicates that the proportion of returnees tends to increase overtime.(20) Very large numbers in the governments of Taiwan and Korea havebeen trained overseas and the trends towards more democratic systems andincreasing rates of return migration are not simply coincidental. Sofar, according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. official Chinese sources, only about one third of the220,000 students from China who have gone overseas since 1979 havereturned, and the proportion returning from the United States is onlyabout one fifth.(21) China, ideally, wanted all the students to returnversed in the ways of foreign technology, so that they could contributeto economic development and nation building. There are, however,differences between ideal plans and practical results. If studentscurrently overseas return to China in substantial numbers, they maygenerate changes as radical as those wrought by their revolutionarypredecessors.(22) This scenario is but one possible future consequenceof this migration. For the moment, all we can say is that thousands haveopted to become permanent residents of developed countries, but thisneed not necessarily imply permanent exile: The rate of return willdepend upon directions taken in post-deng China.It is not only students who return. Movements back home have been anintegral part of all settler migration systems, blurring any cleardistinction between settlers and sojourners in European as well as Asianmigration. However, interesting patterns are evolving among wealthyChinese migrants to North America and Australasia, known as the"astronaut" syndrome and the "parachute kid"syndrome. In the former, a migrant, usually male, will leave his spouseand family at a destination while he returns to Hong Kong or Taiwan tocontinue his business. In the latter, both parents return to their placeof origin after establishing their children with relatives or, if thechildren are old enough, on their own in their house in North America orAustralia. Thus, families are established over long distances,incorporating at least two residences, sometimes more, with one or bothparents commuting at regular intervals from one home to the other. Thenumber of people participating in such trans-pacific networks is notinsignificant. Furthermore, the strongly female-biased cohorts in the 35to 49 year-old age group observed among the Hong Kong-born in cities inCanada This is a list of incorporated cities of Canada in alphabetical order categorized by province. More thorough lists of communities are available for each province.Significant cities , Australia and New Zealand signify large numbers of female-headed"astronaut" households.(23) there are no data to indicate thatmigrants from China itself, as opposed to those who have been residentin Hong Kong and Taiwan, are engaging in this process. What is clearhowever, is that many of those who back have done so to take advantageof the opening-up of the Chinese economy and have business rinks there.Thus, Chinese communities in Hong Kong Taiwan, North America,Australasia and China itself are linked through these circuits of humanmobility.Origins of Settler and Student Migration in ChinaThere are few data on place of origin of the migrants who leaveChina. However, given the importance of the flow to Hong Kong and of thefamily reunification that has played such an important part in themovement from China thus far, it would seem reasonable to assume thatmost of the emigration has come from the traditional areas ofoutmigration, that is, from around the Pearl River Delta, from EasternGuangdong and from coastal parts of Fujian province. However, theimportance of students in the overall movement from China also suggeststhat the areas of origin may be broadening. The premier universities inthe country are in Beijing and Shanghai, as well as in Guangzhou, and itwould seem logical that many of the students going overseas are fromthese parts of the country The Shanghai region was, in fact, a majorsource of students going overseas from pre-communist China.(24)One study of all recent emigration from China has suggested that overone quarter of those leaving originated in Shanghai, followed inimportance by Beijing, Fujian and Guangdong.(25) These results weredrawn from the number recorded in the 1990 population census whosepermanent household registration system had been suspended because theywere abroad at the time of the census. The total number of those failinginto this category was 237,024, but whether this included students whomight be away temporarily or whole families who might have moved to HongKong, for example, is not clear. What does seem clear is that theemigration fields have been extended northwards to the large cities ofShanghai and Beijing and that the students may be in the vanguard ofthis movement, which in the future may lead to family reunification fromareas far beyond the traditional southern sources of emigrationDestinations of Settlers and StudentsThe most important destinations for the legal migration of settlersand students are clearly in North America and Australasia. Migrationfrom Hong Kong has been focused more on Canada, and more recentlyAustralia, while that from China and Taiwan is more focused on theUnited States, even if the movements to the other countries are alsoimportant. For settlers, the specific destinations within these areasare highly focused on the major cities of each country: to Toronto andVancouver in Canada; to New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of , Los Angeles Los Angeles(lôs ăn`jələs, lŏs, ăn`jəlēz'), city (1990 pop. 3,485,398), seat of Los Angeles co., S Calif.; inc. 1850. , San Francisco San Francisco(săn frănsĭs`kō), city (1990 pop. 723,959), coextensive with San Francisco co., W Calif., on the tip of a peninsula between the Pacific Ocean and San Francisco Bay, which are connected by the strait known as the Golden , and alsoSeattle in the United States; to Sydney in Australia; and to Auckland inNew Zealand. Over 70 percent of Hong Kong immigrants to Canada have goneto either Ontario (43 percent in 1993) or British Columbia British Columbia,province (2001 pop. 3,907,738), 366,255 sq mi (948,600 sq km), including 6,976 sq mi (18,068 sq km) of water surface, W Canada.Geography (31 percentin 1993); 71 percent of the immigrants to Ontario went to Toronto and 90percent of the immigrants to British Columbia went to Vancouver in1993.26 Recent immigrants from China to the United States have goneoverwhelmingly to just three states, California, Washington and NewYork, and immigrants from Taiwan have gone primarily to California.Migration from China to these countries is primarily a migration to thelargest urban areas. The distribution of students from China and Taiwanin the United States is, however, somewhat more widespread, even if thesame general pattern can still be observed.(27)Apart from the migrations to the main settler societies in NorthAmerica and Australasia, there are more minor, but nevertheless notable,flows from China to other destinations, particularly to Europe. Theseflows, quite apart from their size, are somewhat different from those tothe major destinations in terms of their history and their origins. Themajority of those who go to Europe appear to come from the province ofZhejiang, and primarily from the areas around Wenzhou and Qingtian, andthe development of these flows illustrates very interesting aspects ofmigration from China. The British and French recruited nearly 100,000laborers to fulfill noncombatant auxiliary or labor duties in Franceduring the First World War.(28) Almost all of these men were recruitedin the Shandong peninsula Shandong Peninsulaor Shan-tung Peninsula conventional Shantung PeninsulaPeninsula, eastern China. Occupying the eastern section of Shandong province, it extends northeastward between the Bo Hai (Gulf of Chihli) and the Yellow Sea. and transported through the ports of Weihaiweiand later Qingdao. After 1917, the ships transporting the laborers putin at Shanghai so that medical examinations could be carried out. Asnews of this stop-over spread locally, men from Qingtian were able tomingle with those from Shanghai and have themselves shipped to France.After the end of the war, almost all of the men from Shandong wererepatriated but some from Qingtian staved on. Once they had establishedthemselves, a rise in chain migration from that area and from theprovincial capital Noun 1. provincial capital - the capital city of a provincecapital - a seat of governmentcity, metropolis, urban center - a large and densely populated urban area; may include several independent administrative districts; "Ancient Troy was a great city" Wenzhou emerged in the mid-1920s, which set upChinese communities not only in Paris, but in other continental Europeancities as well.(29) During the 1920s, perhaps 20,000 people fromQingtian were to be found in European cities, with Paris, Milan, Berlin,Hamburg, Amsterdam, Rotterdam and Marseilles being the maincommunities.(30) Thus, the almost accidental linking of the Qingtianmigrants to the Shandong contract labor system gave rise to a diasporafrom Zhejiang to Europe, yet the larger numbers of migrants fromShandong do not appear to have generated an equivalent later movement,reflecting the very different attitudes at the time among Southern andNorthern Chinese towards migration.Movements to Europe continued with fluctuations from the mid-1920s,and many migrants returned to China. As with the major destinations ofChinese migration, the movements to Europe accelerated again from thelate 1970s and in the early 1980s. By the 1990s, there were probablysome 30,000 Chinese in Italy, 150,000 to 200,000 in Paris alone, and40,000 to 50,000 in the Netherlands.(31) Migrants from Zhejiang made up80 to 90 percent of the Chinese in Italy but, while they figuredprominently among those in Paris and the Netherlands too, the Chinesecommunities there were much more diverse, with large numbers from HongKong and from Southeast Asian countries.Contract LaborThe importance of contract labor in the historical development ofChinese migration is apparent from the discussion earlier in thearticle. In the 1990s, contract labor from China continues to form asignificant part of movement overseas. Again, these flows have onlybecome important since 1979, although there were skilled migrants goingto socialist African countries on contract in the 1970s. Now,China's vast population is seen by Chinese authorities to be aresource that can be used to generate foreign exchange.(32) By 1983,there were some 3 1,000 contract laborers overseas generating some $13million. Ten years later, the number of laborers had increased to173,000, generating over $6.8 billion.(33) Although there were Chineselaborers working in over one hundred countries, much of the increase hadtaken place since 199 1, with the initiation of huge infrastructureprojects in Macau and Hong Kong. Over 40,000 laborers were working inthese two areas in 1991,(34) and these numbers have probably increasedsubstantially since Hong Kong's massive airport and associatedprojects have moved into full construction phases. The majority of theselaborers will have been recruited in neighboring Guandong provincealthough there are also some from Hunan and as far away as Shandong.Laborers recruited for projects in Japan, Singapore or the Middle Eastare likely to have come from more widespread origins. There also appearto be some 15,000 Chinese workers, mainly from Heilongjiang province, inthe Russian Far East.(35)Illegal MigrationIllegal flows from China to North America, in particular, havecaptured the attention of the media, although these represent, as shouldbe clear from this article, only part of the total migration from Chinatoday. Illegal migration is, nevertheless, an important part of thetotal flow but, for obvious reasons, there are no accurate figures onvolume and composition. Official sources from the United States haveestimated that perhaps 1 00,000 people a year in the early 1990s wereentering the United States illegally from China. Chinese sourcesestimate that, for the same period, there were up to half a millionChinese waiting for transit to the West from cities in Russia, EasternEurope Eastern EuropeThe countries of eastern Europe, especially those that were allied with the USSR in the Warsaw Pact, which was established in 1955 and dissolved in 1991. , Southeast Asia and Latin America.(36) The majority of theseappeared to be heading towards the United States, although Australianand Western European cities were also among the preferred destinations.There have also been claims that there may be as many as one millionChinese living illegally in the Siberian border regions of Russia'sFar East.(37)The significance of the illegal flow to Western countries lies asmuch with the nature of its organization as with sheer numbers. It isclearly linked to international criminal syndicates and the potentialprofits are as large as the punishments are derisory in the case ofcapture. The resurgence of crime in China has been an unfortunateoutgrowth of reforms. Some of the new rich have been able to suborn sub��orn?tr.v. sub��orned, sub��orn��ing, sub��orns1. To induce (a person) to commit an unlawful or evil act.2. Lawa. To induce (a person) to commit perjury.b. local and regional government officials to further their own ends, andcorrupt cadres, often at senior levels, have not been immune from directparticipation in this activity. One lucrative activity is the smugglingof people who otherwise would not be able to negotiate successfully thelong process to secure legal documents to emigrate. Individuals arereputedly re��put��ed?adj.Generally supposed to be such. See Synonyms at supposed.re��puted��ly adv.Adv. 1. charged between $30,000 and $50,000 to be smuggled into theUnited States. Clearly, few have these kinds of resources and thesyndicates accept an initial advance payment of around 10 percent and aslightly larger payment at an intermediate point; the balance must bepaid upon reaching the destination.(38) Many are kept as virtual slavelaborers in the Chinatowns of New York and San Francisco until theirdebts are paid off. This system is reminiscent of the credit-ticketsystem of the last century and, again, most of the migrants are youngmales, even if there are also significant numbers of young women, bothof whom presumably pre��sum��a��ble?adj.That can be presumed or taken for granted; reasonable as a supposition: presumable causes of the disaster. wish to return either to their families or to marryonce they have made their fortunes in the New World. They are the newsojourners, although many tragically become trapped by criminalnetworks. Prostitution and drug smuggling are ways of repaying enormousdebts into which the migrants have fallen in their wish to leave China.The majority of illegal migrants come from Southern China, againfitting into traditional net-works, with most coming from a small numberof towns in coastal Fujian province, particularly in Changle County.While the numbers arriving off the coast of the United States, such asthose aboard the Goyden Venture, capture the spotlight, it is likelythat the majority of illegals leave by plane for Central American Central AmericaA region of southern North America extending from the southern border of Mexico to the northern border of Colombia. It separates the Caribbean Sea from the Pacific Ocean and is linked to South America by the Isthmus of Panama. destinations via continental Europe for onward movement by land or smallplane.There are also considerable illegal flows to Asian destinations.Apart from the booming ports in the Russian Far East and their networkof criminal activities, there are continuous flows to Hong Kong, witharound 38,000 being captured and repatriated during 1993 and again in1994, and also to Taiwan, Japan and Thailand, although information onthese flows is fragmentary The money that can be earned from smugglingpeople both regionally and across the Pacific and the linkages to globalnetworks of international crime mean that illegal migration from Chinais likely to continue as a major problem for destination countries inthe years ahead, and as an important element in the activities ofmultinational criminal corporations.DiscussionThe migration out of China that was truncated from the latenineteenth century through to the 1930s, depending on the destination,laid the basis for the present patterns of population movement. Thesebegan from Hong Kong and Taiwan from the 1950s and continued withchanged immigration laws in the main potential destination areas fromthe 1960s. An acceleration has occurred since the opening up of Chinaitself from 1979. It is, nevertheless, still difficult to leave China.There is still no real freedom of movement despite the increased numbersof migrants. Many who cannot obtain a passport and an exit visa exit visan → visado de salidaexit visan → visa m de sortieexit visaexit n → Ausreisevisum nt attemptto leave illegally, although this option is expensive and can bedangerous. The numbers going legally and illegally are small relative tothe size of China's population. Those leaving are still primarilyfrom the provinces of Southern China, although there are signs that themigration fields are being extended further north, often pioneered bystudents from the main university centers. The vast majority ofChina's population is as yet untouched by international migration,either directly or indirectly, although given the upsurge in domesticmovements since the early 1980s this cannot be said about internalmigration. Though the consequences of migration are varied: whetherrising aspirations brought about through the increasing numbers movingto towns and cities, even temporarily, will impel im��pel?tr.v. im��pelled, im��pel��ling, im��pels1. To urge to action through moral pressure; drive: I was impelled by events to take a stand.2. To drive forward; propel. international moves;whether the student migrations that have led to settlement will latergenerate chain movements through family reunification; or whether thenew sojourner migrations will give rise to more permanent settlement andlater chain migration will all depend upon policies not only indestination societies, but primarily in the direction taken in post-DengChina. A steady continuation of current policies is likely to see agradual acceleration of migration from China. A reversion to policies ofthe extreme left is likely to see an exodus of the new middle classesfrom the coastal cities to Hong Kong, Taiwan and other parts of Asia,which would have profound consequences for most parts of the world.Such idle speculation on hypothetical future directions divertsattention from the essential fact that migration is not just aboutnumbers, but about control over wealth and ideas. Although the numbersof migrants from China are relatively small compared with the greatmigrations out of Europe from a much smaller base population earlierthis century, the composition of the migrant flows has been heavilybiased towards the postgraduate-level student, the professionals and thewealthier groups. Many of these wealthier groups are from the peripheralareas of Hong Kong and Taiwan, but they often maintain close links withtheir home areas in China, commuting regularly to them, and they havebusiness interests there and among the wider networks of the overseasChinese. Many of the students are indeed from China and their return, ifit occurs, like the return of previous generations of students, islikely to have a major impact on the home society.Although the numbers of migrants from China are relatively small,their potential impact on origin and destination areas can be great. Theemigration is still primarily from areas with the longest contact withthe outside world, emphasizing the historical legacy and continuitieswith the past, while the increasing complexity of emigration bothreflects and reinforces the recent development of Southern China and thelarge coastal cities. Migration China demonstrates continuities inspatial pattern and in certain types of migrants such as the newsojourners, both rich and poor. There are nevertheless importantdifferences from past patterns in terms of wider participation fromregions of origin and in terms of a greater range of migrant types ashighly educated men and women, as well as poorer people, participate inpopulation flows integrating, China more fully into the world system.Whatever the future direction of political and economic change in China,population migration in and out of China is going to be a profound forcefor change around the Pacific Rim Pacific Rim,term used to describe the nations bordering the Pacific Ocean and the island countries situated in it. In the post–World War II era, the Pacific Rim has become an increasingly important and interconnected economic region. , elsewhere in the world, and in Chinaitself as we move into the twenty first century.I wish to thank my colleague Professor Ron Hill Ron Hill, MBE, BSc, PhD (b. September 25, 1938, in Accrington, East Lancashire, England), is the founder of Ronhill and Hilly Clothing Company, makers of performance apparel, and the second man ever to break two hours and ten minutes in the marathon (after Derek Clayton). for his comments onparts of this paper and Dr. George Lin of the University of Hong Kong The University of Hong Kong (commonly abbreviated as HKU, pronounced as "Hong Kong U") is the oldest tertiary institution in Hong Kong. Its motto is "Sapientia et Virtus" in Latin, and " and Dr. Chan Kam Wing of the University of Washington for supplyinginformation. Needless to say they cannot be held responsible for theinterpretations made in the paper. (1) A.H. Smith cited in VictorPurcell, The Chinese in Southeast Asia (London: Oxford University Press,1965, 2nd ed.) p. 30. The Confucian ideal of the sedentary nature ofChinese life is outlined in Y.C. Wang, Chinese Intellectuals and theWest 1879-1949 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press The University of North Carolina Press (or UNC Press), founded in 1922, is a university press that is part of the University of North Carolina. External linkUniversity of North Carolina Press , 1966)p. 23. See also Rance Lee, "The Fading of Earthbound Compulsion ina Chinese Village: Population Mobility and Its EconomicImplication," in Social Life and Development in Hongkong, eds.Ambrose King Ambrose Yeo-chi King (Chinese: 金耀基) (born 14 February 1935) is a sociologist in Hong Kong and was formerly the vice-chancellor of The Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK). and Rance Lee (Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press,1981). (2) C.R Fitzgerald, The Southern Expansion of the Chinese People The following is a '''list of famous Chinese-speaking/writing people. Note in Chinese names, the family name is typically placed first (for example, the family name of "Xu Feng" is "Xu"). :Southern Fields and Southern Ocean (London: Barrie and Jenkins, 1972).(3) Sterling Seagrave, Lords of the Rim: The Invisible Empire of theOverseas Chinese (London: Bantam Press Bantam Press is an imprint of Transworld Publishers which is a British publishing division of Random House. , 1995). Another good generalintroduction to the Chinese diaspora is Lynn Pan, Sons of the YellowEmperor Yellow Emperor,Mandarin Huangdi, legendary Chinese ruler and culture hero; tradition holds that he reigned from 2697 B.C. to 2597 B.C. He is one of the mythical prehistoric emperors who supposedly created the basic elements of Chinese civilization. : The Story of the Overseas Chinese (London: Seckerand Warburg,1990). (4) Elizabeth Sinn, "Emigration from Hong Kong before 1941:General Trends," in Emigration from Hong Kong. Tendencies andImpacts, ed. Ronald Skeldon (Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press,1995) p. 12. (5) The laws prohibiting emigration were not formallyrescinded until 1893. The Qing and Ming attitudes towards emigration aresummarized in Harlcy MacNair, The Chinese Abroad. Their Position andProtection (Shanghai: The Commercial Press, 1933). See also Purcell,chapter 3. (6) Robert Irick, Ch'ing Policy Toward the Coolie Trade,1847-1878 (Taipei: Chinese Materials Center, 1982). (7) See ElizabethSinn, "Emigration from Hong Kong Before 1941: Organization andImpact," in Emigration from Hong Kong: Tendencies and Impacts, ed.Ronald Skeldon (Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 1995). (8) Thecontrast between sojourners and settlers, often in the context ofcomparing Asian, mainly Chinese, movements with European migration, canbe overdrawn o��ver��draw?v. o��ver��drew , o��ver��drawn , o��ver��draw��ing, o��ver��drawsv.tr.1. To draw against (a bank account) in excess of credit.2. . Many Europeans were also sojourners and returnedrelatively quickly to their home countries. For an incisive discussion,see Chan Sucheng, "European and Asian Immigration Into the UnitedStates in Comparative Perspective," in Immigration Reconsidered.History, Society, and Policies, ed. Virginia Yans-McLaughlin (New York:Oxford University Press, 1990). (9) For estimates of the numbers ofChinese overseas at this time in Southeast Asia, see Purcell; for theUnited States, see Harry H.L. Kitano and Roger Daniels, Asian Americans:Emerging Minorities (Englewood Cliffs; Prentice Hall Prentice Hall is a leading educational publisher. It is an imprint of Pearson Education, Inc., based in Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA. Prentice Hall publishes print and digital content for the 6-12 and higher education market. HistoryIn 1913, law professor Dr. , 1988); and forCanada, see Edgar Wickberg, ed., From China to Canada: A History of theChinese Communities in Canada (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1982).(10) Pan, p. 18. (11) Sinn, p. 12. (12) The best account of thesepolicies remains Charles Price Charles Price is the name of the following people: Sir Charles Price (1748-1818), was a UK MP 1802-1812. Charles Price, Hindmarsh Island was a founder of South Australia Charles Melvin Price (1905–1988), U.S. Congressman. , The Great White Walls Are Built:Restrictive Immigration to North America and Australasia 1836-1888(Canberra: Australian National University Press, 1974). (13) See JamesWarren James Warren may refer to any of the following people: James Warren (1726-1808) - President of the Provincial Congress of Massachusetts and a general during the American Revolution. James Warren - British engineer who patented the Warren-type truss bridge in 1848. , Rickshaw Coolie: A People's History A people's history is a type of historical work which attempts to account for historical events from the perspective of common people. DescriptionA people's history is the history of the world that is the story of mass movements and of the outsiders. of Singapore(1880-1940) (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1986). See also RonHill, "Notes on Chinese Agricultural Colonization in SoutheastAsia" Erdkunde, 42 (1988) pp. 123-35. (14) David Podmore, "ThePopulation of Hong Kong," in Hong Kong. The Industrial Colony, ed.Keith Hopkins For the singer-songwriter, see Keith WestMorris Keith Hopkins (June 20 1934–March 8 2004) was a British historian and sociologist. He was professor of ancient history at the University of Cambridge from 1985 to 2001. (Hong Kong: Oxford University (15) An overview ofmigration to Hong Kong up to the early 1980's is given in RonaldSkeldon, "Hong Kong and its Hinterland: A Case of InternationalRural-to-urban Migration?" Asian Geographer, 5, no. 1 (1986) pp.1-24. (16) The issue of emigration from Hong Kong is discussed fully inRonald Skeldon, "Hong Kong in an International MigrationSystem," in Reluctant Exiles? Migration from Hong Kong and the NewOverseas Chinese (New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1994). (17) ImmigrationStatistics, (Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 1992). (18) Information onstudents in the United States comes from the biannual bi��an��nu��al?adj.1. Happening twice each year; semiannual.2. Occurring every two years; biennial.bi��an Open Doors: Reportan International Educational Exchange (New York: Institute ofInternational Education). (19) Sugimoto, "Mass Migration", p.26. (20) See Ronald Skeldon, "International Migration Within andFrom the East and Southeast Asian Region: A Review Essay," Asianand Pacific Migration Journal, 1, no. 1 (1992) pp. 19-63. (21) Cited inMigration News (Davis: University of California The University of California has a combined student body of more than 191,000 students, over 1,340,000 living alumni, and a combined systemwide and campus endowment of just over $7.3 billion (8th largest in the United States). , May 1995). (22) SeeChong-Pin Lin, "China's Students Abroad: Rates ofReturn," The American Enterprise, 5, no. 6 (1994) pp. 12-14. (23)Kee Pookong and Ronald Skeldon, "The Migration and Settlement ofHong Kong Chinese in Australia," in Reluctant Exiles? Migrationfrom Hong Kong and the New Overseas Chinese, ed. Ronald Skeldon (NewYork: M.E. Sharpe, 1994); and Ronald Skeldon, "The Chinese inPacific Rim Development," in Global-local Relations in Pacific RimDevelopment, eds. Peter Rimmer and Sophie Watson (24) Wang I-chu,Chinese Intellectuals and the West, 1872-1949 (Chapel Hill: Universityof North Carolina Press, 1966). (25) Miao Jian Hua, "InternationalMigration in China: A Survey of Emigrants from Shanghai," Asian andPacific Migration Journal, 3, no. 2-3 (1994) pp. 445-63. (26) DianaLary, "Regional Variations in Settlement of Hong KongImmigrants," Canada and Hong Kong Update, no. 12 (Spring 1994) pp.5-6. (27) Maps on distributions are provided in Open Doors 1993-1994:Report on International Educational Exchange (New York: Institute ofInternational Education, 1994). (28) The fullest account of thisincident is given in Michael Summerskill, China on the Western Front(London: Michael Summerskill, 1982). (29) Charles Archaimbault, "EnMarge du Quartier Chinois de Paris," Bulletin de la Societe desEtudes Indochinoises, 27, no. 3 (1952) pp. 275-94. (30) From Chinesesources cited in Mette Thuno, "Diversity and Diffusion: The ChineseCommunity in Denmark," paper presented at the Conference on TheLast Half Century of Chinese Overseas: Comparative Perspectives (TheUniversity of Hong Kong, 19-21 December 1994). (31) The figures forItaly come from Aliza Wong, "Il Quartiere Cinese: The EmergingChinese Community in Milan, Italy," paper presented at theConference on the Last Half Century of Chinese Overseas: ComparativePerspectives (The University of Hong Kong, 19-21 December 1994); thefigures for Paris from Yu-Sion Live "Les Chinois de Paris Depuis leDebut du Siecle: Presence Urbaine et Activites Economiques," RevueEuropeenne des Migrations Internationales, 8, no. 3 (1992) pp. 155-173;and for the Netherlands from Frank Pieke, "Immigration etEntreprenariat: Les Chinois aux Pays Bas," Revue Europeenne desMigrations Internationales, 8, no. 3 (1992) pp. 33-50. (32) Fang Shan,"Mainland China's Overseas Construction Contracts and Exportof Labour," Issues and Studies, 27, no. 2 (1991) pp. 65-75. (33)Figures from the China Yearbook of Foreign Relations and Trade(Beijing). (34) Zhang Jixun, "The Chinese Labour ExportMarket," paper presented at the Conference on Migration and theLabour Market in Asia in the Year 2000, OECD OECD:see Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. and Japan Institute ofLabour The Japan Institute of Labour is the third sector under the supervision of the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare of Japan. The institute is concerned with working conditions and safety for members of the Japanese work force. (Tokyo: 19-20 January 1995). (35) Hiroshi Kakazu, "NortheastAsian Regional Economic Cooperation," in Growth Triangles in Asia:A New Approach to Regional Economic Cooperation, eds. Myo Thant, MinTang and Hiroshi Kakazu (Hong Kong: Oxford University Press, 1994). (36)Chinese sources cited in Migration News (Davis: University ofCalifornia, November 1994); see also Willard Myers, "Statement tothe Subcommittee on International Security, International Organizationsand Human Rights, Committee on Foreign Affairs Committee on Foreign Affairs is a title used by several governments to refer to committees on/of foreign affairs, foreign relations, or international relations. Here are some of the more common ones: The European Parliament's Committee on Foreign Affairs , House ofRepresentatives, November 4, 1993," The Center for the Study ofAsian Organized Crime (Philadelphia). (37) Asia Yearbok 1994 (Hong Kong:Far Eastern Economic Review) p. 199. (38) The organization of illegalmigration is given fuller treatment in Ronald Skeldon, "East AsianMigration and the Changing World Order," in Population Migrationand the Changing World Order, eds. William Gould and Allan Findlay(London: Wiley, 1994).