Religion: source of terror and transformation; Reflections on seeing the face of God in my religious Other.

Religion: source of terror and transformation; Reflections on seeing the face of God in my religious Other. It was May at Chatham College in Pittsburgh, and the semester was almost over. I sat on the enclosed sun porch at Woodland Hall with a group of Muslim women and discreetly pocketed the nuts they offered me because I did not know how to the crack the shells open with my teeth. Aziza and Af-Shan talked excitedly with their mothers, who had arrived from Palestine and Pakistan (respectively) for the upcoming graduation. A cry of exclamation went up as Dr. Rachida El-Diwani, the Fulbright Scholar from Egypt, joined the gathering; my classmates Classmates can refer to either: Classmates.com, a social networking website. Classmates (film), a 2006 Malayalam blockbuster directed by Lal Jose, starring Prithviraj, Jayasurya, Indragith, Sunil, Jagathy, Kavya Madhavan, Balachandra Menon, ... and their mothers rose and kissed her on both cheeks, speaking in Arabic. When Rachida got to me, she spoke in English, smiling: "I will greet you the Mediterranean way," and she guided me through touching our cheeks together, first the left and then the right. The final meeting of the Muslim Student Association, to which I was an invited guest, had begun. As Rachida began her farewell speech A Farewell speech is a speech given by an individual leaving a position or place. They are often used by public figures such as politicians as a form of conclusion to the preceding career (such as that given by Ronald Reagan); or as statements delivered by persons relating to , I reflected on the memories I had of time spent with my Muslim friends: taping balloons to the tables for the Eid dinner; listening to Aziza encourage me to re-interpret my own scriptures so that I could feel better about difficult Bible verses related to women; warning Sukaina, who had not yet put on her scarf for the morning, that my father would be entering our residence hall; watching her fasten her scarf in front of the second floor mirror. I thought of the two courses on Islam that I had taken with Rachida and how she always handed back the papers I wrote with a smile, and I also remembered the voicemail message from her. She had urged me to submit a paper I had written for her class to the annual College Writing Awards sponsored by the English department Noun 1. English department - the academic department responsible for teaching English and American literaturedepartment of Englishacademic department - a division of a school that is responsible for a given subject . "I am sure you will win something," Rachida said excitedly. "You write so well--el-hamdoulilah!" I finished listening to the message and then pressed the button to hear it again, bursting into tears. No one--including me--had ever given spontaneous praise to God for my writing before. Then I recalled standing to be recognized in the awards assembly while Rachida sat beaming at me, because my paper had been chosen as one of the winners. My attention came back to the Woodland sun porch and the meeting to which Rachida had invited me. The women listened as she encouraged them to wear colorful scarves so that people would not automatically associate all Islam with the black veils prescribed by the Ayatollah Khomeini Noun 1. Ayatollah Khomeini - Iranian religious leader of the Shiites; when Shah Pahlavi's regime fell Khomeini established a new constitution giving himself supreme powers (1900-1989)Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini, Khomeini, Ruholla Khomeini . She exhorted them to speak the truth about Islam and to correct, to the best of their ability, the misconceptions that were put forth by the American media. "On that day," Rachida said with an intensity that could have rivaled any Christian preacher, "Allah will ask, 'What have you done with your knowledge?'" I sat very still--surprised--because I had not expected to be anything more than a supportive guest, a Muslim-friendly person. Rachida was encouraging the Muslim students, but I heard in her words a message for me. Jesus' parable of the talents For the novel by Octavia Butler, see .The Parable of the Talents (sometimes just the Parable of Talents) is a parable of Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew (Matthew 25:14-30). It was told to illustrate an aspect of the nature of the Kingdom of Heaven. suddenly made sense; knowledge and writing were both valuable things that God had given me, and they could lay unused in the ground if I were not careful. Rachida had named in me a gift for writing, and now she was challenging me to be faithful to it. This stranger from Alexandria, Egypt had shown up as God in the face of a Muslim woman. Rachida, however, did not look like God to many of my classmates at Chatham College. A secular women's college in one of Pittsburgh's historic neighborhoods, Chatham attracts and nurtures independent thinkers and emerging leaders. The school has a Global Focus program, which highlights a different country or part of the world each year. In 2002-2003, the focus was on the Communities of Islam, and the College hosted a Fulbright scholar who lived in the Intercultural in��ter��cul��tur��al?adj.Of, relating to, involving, or representing different cultures: an intercultural marriage; intercultural exchange in the arts. Residence Hall and participated in the academic life of the campus. When most people saw Rachida El-Diwani, they saw a woman who wore different colored headscarves but never exposed more than her face and hands to the public. She was a lively, engaging woman in her early fifties with a delightful sense of humor Noun 1. sense of humor - the trait of appreciating (and being able to express) the humorous; "she didn't appreciate my humor"; "you can't survive in the army without a sense of humor"sense of humour, humor, humour and a strong commitment to Middle Eastern hospitality. If Rachida had a plate of baklava in her office, she offered it to all who entered, without exception. Chatham professors saw a colleague in Rachida because she was a professor of French at Alexandria University Alexandria University (Arabic: جامعة الإسكندرية ) is a university in Alexandria, Egypt. It was established in 1938 as a satellite of Fouad I University, becoming an independent entity in 1942. ; students saw a woman who could offer an insider's perspective on Islam after 9/11; Muslim students saw hope for better understanding of Islam on campus. Some students saw a woman who was not well acquainted with the American academic system and resented her for it. Everyone saw her as a human being, who talked and laughed and playfully scolded her husband, Refaat El-Attar, who accompanied her to public events and co-taught the Informal Arabic class. Chatham College is not opposed to religion or religious people, but the College's secular, academic atmosphere can be very different for those who see faith as not merely a private matter. Some students may have found Rachida's habit of entering a classroom and wishing God's peace upon its occupants interesting and unusual, but everyone respected this as part of Rachida's individual religious practice, even if they themselves did not understand it. The same went for silent prayers I offered before meals in the cafeteria throughout my four years in college. My tablemates were never offended when I bowed my head to pray, although some were puzzled ("Are you making sure the food is edible?"), and others were curious ("Is that part of your religion?"). Except for friends who also called themselves Christians, no one ever joined me in table prayers (at least that I was aware of). Neither did anyone return Rachida's blessing for peace as she entered a classroom. As soon as I learned the Arabic words, however, I began reciting the proper return blessing and continued doing so for the rest of the year. Rachida would come in for class, saying, "Assalaamooaleykum," and I would answer, "W'aleykumassalaam." Returning Rachida's blessing was a way for me to practice her faith with her, to open myself in a greater way, and to promote peace and understanding on a spiritual, and not only academic, level. Being hospitable hos��pi��ta��ble?adj.1. Disposed to treat guests with warmth and generosity.2. Indicative of cordiality toward guests: a hospitable act.3. in this way was a very freeing experience because it helped me to see common ground between Muslims and Christians. When Chatham held a World Religions panel during my first year, there was very little dialogue between the represented traditions, so my understanding of Islam remained intellectual and limited. The transition from knowledge to a more interpersonal and spiritual experience happened as a result of two things during my junior year. The first was when Rachida told our class, "Islam is a whole way of living, and I am sure you have trouble understanding this because religion is not like that for you here in the West." Initially, I was insulted. How can you say I don't understand what it means for religion to be a way of life? That's all I've been taught. I grew up in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, known as the Garden Spot of America since the 18th century, is located in the southeastern part of the state of Pennsylvania, in the United States. , and Amish buggies were part of my every day reality, especially if I had to drive around one on the road. The Mennonite schools I attended forbade for��bade?v.A past tense of forbid.forbadeor forbadVerbthe past tense of forbidforbadeforbid jewelry and, up until my fifth grade year, slacks for women. My family spent a few years dressing plainly as part of a Conservative (1) Friends (Quaker) community, and we regularly hosted meetings and meals in our homes. Then I realized Rachida simply did not know about religion in the United States Religion is a significant part of the culture of the United States. The United States is also one of the most religious of those countries considered to be "developed nations." According to a 2002 survey by the Pew Global Attitudes Project, the U.S. that was not mainstream. I began to look for opportunities to tell her about the plain people with whom I had lived. The second thing happened when my family came to Pittsburgh for a weekend visit in late September. As we returned to Chatham from a Sunday morning Sunday Morning may refer to: "Sunday Morning (radio program)", a Canadian radio program formerly aired on CBC Radio One CBS News Sunday Morning, a television news program on CBS in the United States Sunday Morning (TBS TV series) service at Pittsburgh Mennonite Church Noun 1. Mennonite Church - formed from the Anabaptist movement in the 16th century; noted for its simplicity of lifeProtestant denomination - group of Protestant congregations , I saw Rachida walking near Mellon Hall and waved to her. She came over to the car, wearing a bright blue dress and matching hijab, and my parents got out to meet her: my father, bearded and wearing suspenders, and my mother, head covered with a gray scarf. Sometime later in the week, Rachida took me aside. "Eileen, your mother wears a head cover almost like mine. Does she wear it all the time?" I hesitated, not sure of how to answer, but decided to go for the truth. "Well, she doesn't always wear it in the house," I answered, expecting disapproval. Rachida smiled. "I don't wear mine in the house, either." Through something as simple and as complex as my mother's head covering, Rachida and I began to understand each other as real people who practiced religious faith, and that intersection of our respective traditions opened the way for more conversations. Religion had become a source of transformation. One day in Rachida's Islam and Contemporary Issues course, the class talked about the Qur'an and its view of women. During the course of the discussion, a student suggested that the Qur'an needed to be changed. Inwardly in��ward��ly?adv.1. On or in the inside; within: a window opening flared inwardly.2. Privately; to oneself: , I cringed at how poorly versed my classmates were in religious matters because this suggestion showed little understanding of what it means for scripture to be inspired from God, in addition to lack of understanding that human tampering tamperingThe adulteration of a thing. See Drug tampering. with such scripture is forbidden. I did not know how Rachida might respond. To my relief, she tactfully tact��ful?adj.Possessing or exhibiting tact; considerate and discreet: a tactful person; a tactful remark.tact pointed out that the Qur'an itself cannot be changed, but our interpretation of it can. In a world where Christian and Muslim extremists claim to know and follow the original meaning of their scriptures, Rachida's calm and thoughtful explanation reminded me that not all Muslims were like the angry ones I heard about in the news. Her explanation also proved helpful one October evening as Rachida, Refaat, and I ate supper together in the cafeteria. They were troubled about the United States' slavery of African people The term African people can be used in two ways. First, it may refer to all people who live in Africa, see also demographics of Africa. Second, it is commonly used to describe people who trace their recent ancestry to indigenous inhabitants of Africa, in particular Sub-Saharan and wanted to know how Americans had justified slavery and what my religious traditions had thought about it. "Well," I began, "I don't know Don't know (DK, DKed)"Don't know the trade." A Street expression used whenever one party lacks knowledge of a trade or receives conflicting instructions from the other party. too much about what the Mennonites were doing at that time, but I can tell you about the Quakers," and proceeded to describe Friends' involvement with the Underground Railroad Underground Railroad,in U.S. history, loosely organized system for helping fugitive slaves escape to Canada or to areas of safety in free states. It was run by local groups of Northern abolitionists, both white and free blacks. in the nineteenth century. As I spoke, I could feel the power that comes when speaking from a place of deep truth. The Bible, I went on, had been used by American people An American people may be: any nation or ethnic group of the Americas see Demographics of North America see Demographics of South America to uphold slavery, but later they re-interpreted it to condemn slavery. The slaveholders and abolitionists read the same book, but they differed in what they were reading for. Across the table, I could see Rachida was nodding; she was hearing me. "Slaves were forbidden to read and write because their masters were afraid of the power education could give them," I told my Egyptian friends, and noting the shocked looks on their faces (Mohammed had encouraged slaves to read and write), I explained more, leaning in closer to them. "There is a verse in the Bible that says, 'Slaves, obey your masters.' If slaves had been literate, they would have been able to read the verse after it, which says, 'Masters, be kind to your slaves because you also have master in heaven.'" Rachida and Refaat's eyes were fixed on my face, eagerly following every word, enjoying watching me provide critical commentary on my national history and be proficient in my own scriptures. There was a pause, and then Refaat smiled deeply and shook his head in amazement. "Two months ago, I didn't know people like you lived in America." Once again, religious practice had been a source of common ground for us. By talking about (re-)interpretation of holy texts, a subject that Rachida, Refaat, and I were all familiar with in our respective traditions, we had a moment of understanding--and I might even call it communion--that brought us closer together, to be able to hear the truth that united us in our global and theological differences. "Unity in diversity" was a phrase I did not hear at all during college. Chatham supported diversity in nationality, sexual orientation sexual orientationn.The direction of one's sexual interest toward members of the same, opposite, or both sexes, especially a direction seen to be dictated by physiologic rather than sociologic forces. , race, and religion, but the school spent so much time celebrating difference that it was hard to see what I had in common with others. I had come to Chatham to hear and strengthen my own voice above the din of my religious communities, but when my secular, "liberated" first-year roommate suggested that I stop going to church, cease praying, and practice swearing in the shower so that I could figure out my identity, I was deeply annoyed. Her words gave me the impetus to continue praying and attending church, partly out of spite; her diagnosis of religion as a problem to be gotten rid of was galling--my roommate was not practicing a faith, and it shocked me that she saw in herself the authority to speak to my condition. It did not take me long to realize that being religious in a particularly Christian, Mennonite-Quaker way was a part of who I was; I just needed to reclaim this for myself. The difficulty at Chatham College, though, was that there were few people with whom I had enough common ground who could really affirm and accompany me in my quest to be true this part of myself. One of those people happened to be a Muslim named Rachida. As we neared the end of finals week in December 2002, the Chatham College community learned that a first-year had committed suicide in her parents' home in Pittsburgh. I knew the young woman from Rachida's Islam and Contemporary Issues class. The announcement, which included an open invitation to a grief-processing meeting led by campus ministry and residence life staff, came via e-mail from the College president. Knowing that checking e-mail was a laborious task for Rachida, I decided to call her apartment, which was located on the first floor of my residence hall. Refaat answered, and I asked for Rachida without identifying myself. "One minute," he said. "Let me check." I waited, and soon I heard Rachida's voice through the receiver. "Hello?" "Rachida, did you know"--I began, but she interrupted me right away. "Yes, yes, I just came from the meeting." She spoke in her accented English quickly, decisively. "Where are you? Are you here, in Laughlin?" "Yes." Before I could say anything else, such as my name, Rachida said in a tone that left no room for further questions, "I am coming to you right now," and hung up. I opened door to my room, half-expecting to hear Rachida charging up two flights of stairs. One time I had been sick and missed an Arabic class, and she threatened to come and visit me while I was in my bed, or so she said. After a few minutes, I did not see or hear her, so I went down to the first floor, where she was walking around, looking for Looking forIn the context of general equities, this describing a buy interest in which a dealer is asked to offer stock, often involving a capital commitment. Antithesis of in touch with. me. Then we sat together on the loveseat in the dark living room, a hijab-wearing Sunni Muslim Noun 1. Sunni Muslim - a member of the branch of Islam that accepts the first four caliphs as rightful successors to MuhammadSunni, SunniteSunni Islam, Sunni - one of the two main branches of orthodox Islam from Alexandria, Egypt and a blue-jeaned Mennonite-Quaker from Lancaster, Pennsylvania Lancaster, is a city in the South Central part of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and is the county seat of Lancaster County. With a population of 55,351,[1] it is the 8th largest city in Pennsylvania, behind Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, Reading, , talking about our experiences and memories of Shelley, the young woman who had ended her life. "I don't understand," Rachida said. "You girls are so lucky in this country. Why would you want to kill yourselves?" I sat helplessly in the dark. How could I explain white, middle-class, American female adolescence to an Egyptian? "In this culture, sometimes girls are very unhappy inside of themselves." I did not know what else to say. Rachida changed the subject. "Shelley was concerned about religion," she said. "Allah will give her a fair judgment." What Rachida said was true, and I knew I could not have articulated it any better even if I had tried. "Yes," I agreed. "God will give her a fair judgment." "You know, when the Qur'an was written," Rachida went on, as if she were letting me in on a secret, "a well-watered place with lots of food would have been Paradise, because that is how people best envisioned it--they lived in the desert, you know. Today they might understand Paradise in a different way, but it is still that which we most long for. It is the fulfillment of our deepest desires." Surely Rachida and I will be in Paradise together, I thought in a moment of wonder and fright. It was Shelley's death that had sparked this conversation. When Rachida and I sat down in the living room, we were united in having known Shelley, but when we got up from the sofa, we were united in our longing for heaven. How had it happened that in my search for the Truth, a Muslim woman affirmed and accompanied me in a way that no one else could? We came from different countries, cultures, and belief systems, but we had found a common truth, each walking in our own traditions. The Truth remained true and our particularities particular, but we had found unity. I was in awe of what had just happened, and I was also afraid. The unity we had experienced was small, a meeting of two hearts and minds in a residence hall living room. What if religious unity were to happen in a bigger way--were human beings even strong enough to live into the deeper transformations of which religion is capable? Religion brings us to that liminal liminal/lim��i��nal/ (lim��i-n'l) barely perceptible; pertaining to a threshold. lim��i��naladj.Relating to a threshold.liminalbarely perceptible; pertaining to a threshold. space where we are open to the inbreaking of the sacred, (2) and acts of terror result from that when we become afraid of the transformation that could actually take place. At Chatham College, most professors and students point to education as a source of transformation, and they are correct. Yet education can only take us--or perhaps just me--so far. It was not enough to sit in English literature English literature,literature written in English since c.1450 by the inhabitants of the British Isles; it was during the 15th cent. that the English language acquired much of its modern form. courses and use words and phrases Words and Phrases?A multivolume set of law books published by West Group containing thousands of judicial definitions of words and phrases, arranged alphabetically, from 1658 to the present. such as the Other, women's agency, race, class, and gender, and sign, signifier sig��ni��fi��er?n.1. One that signifies.2. Linguistics A linguistic unit or pattern, such as a succession of speech sounds, written symbols, or gestures, that conveys meaning; a linguistic sign. , signified in discussions and written papers. Until I stared into the face of the Other, and she stared back at me, I did not have a full understanding of what this Othering business was all about. From my Mennonite-Quaker perspective, I saw the Egyptian, Muslim Rachida as different, but then I looked long enough to recognize that other Face, the face of God, the Stranger and the Friend. The face of the Other is like a mirror that reflects back to us what we cannot see with our own eyes, which is the entire surface of ourselves in relation to our surroundings (religious, geographical, cultural, etc). (3) As God in Rachida offered me baklava, sat with me after a classmate's suicide, and rejoiced in my writing ability, I began to see that I was loved, and what was more, I started to love myself in a greater way. Meeting the Divine and Muslim Others helped me to come to better terms with my Mennonite-Quaker upbringing. For many years, my mother's head covering had been difficult for me to accept. She began wearing a gray scarf during our time with the plain-dressed Friends community and had not felt released from wearing it, even after she began worshiping with a Charismatic congregation. Sometimes Mom would take off her scarf in the house, especially if the weather was warm, but if we left to go somewhere, she would put the scarf back on. I usually stood by, muttering mut��ter?v. mut��tered, mut��ter��ing, mut��tersv.intr.1. To speak indistinctly in low tones.2. To complain or grumble morosely.v.tr. , "Well, I guess we can leave, now that you've put on your symbol of oppression." Often Mom would tell me that she understood how I felt, but she was still wearing a covering as a witness to her religious commitment. Other times my mother agreed that it was a symbol of oppression and even used this term to refer to her scarf, and yet on other days, Mom rolled her eyes and ignored me. As Adjunct Assistant Professor of Art at Lebanon Valley College HistoryLebanon Valley was founded on February 23, 1866, with classes beginning May 7 of that year and its first class graduating in 1870. Expenses at this time for a full year were $206.50 and remained relatively unchanged for the next 50 years. , her head covering had been the catalyst for conversations about religion with other colleagues and students. Mom did not want to shut down that avenue for religious talk by taking off her scarf. Rachida provided me with a perspective on religious dress that was familiar to and yet emotionally distant enough from my own tradition. This was a woman who could laugh heartily about the audacity au��dac��i��ty?n. pl. au��dac��i��ties1. Fearless daring; intrepidity.2. Bold or insolent heedlessness of restraints, as of those imposed by prudence, propriety, or convention.3. of her pre-Islamic dress days, describing how she once performed the ritual prayers in her bikini Bikini(bēkē`nē), atoll, c.2 sq mi (5.2 sq km), W central Pacific, one of the Ralik Chain, Marshall Islands. It comprises 36 islets on a reef 25 mi (40 km) long. while she was at a beach. She even talked about wearing mini-skirts and decollete d����colle��t��?adj.1. Cut low at the neckline: a d��collet�� dress.2. Wearing a garment that is low-cut or strapless. tops. Now Rachida wore long dresses and a hijab, but I did not see her as an oppressed op��press?tr.v. op��pressed, op��press��ing, op��press��es1. To keep down by severe and unjust use of force or authority: a people who were oppressed by tyranny.2. woman, because she had freely chosen to wear them. (4) During Rachida's stay at Chatham, I began to have greater respect for my mother's decision to continue wearing her scarf. Another Muslim friend at Chatham had once said that she considered her hijab a veil of pride because it gave her identity and protection. She did not wear it because men told her to; she wore it as an act of submission or obedience to God. This was what I saw my mother doing. Throughout the year, Rachida spoke often of submission, and gradually that word ceased to send me into fits of anger about patriarchy patriarchy:see matriarchy. and the male God. As I began to see God differently through Rachida, I discovered that yieldedness--or Gelassenheit, as others might say--to a loving, mothering God who wanted me into grow my full potential was helpful and healing. A few days after the Muslim Student Association meeting on the Woodland sun porch in May 2003, Rachida and Refaat packed their bags to go back to Eygpt. Rachida invited everyone to come to Alexandria and told me multiple times that if I were to visit, I would need to pay for nothing except my plane ticket. A steady stream of well-wishers poured through their apartment with hugs and goodbyes. I tried to drag the heavy suitcases to the waiting taxi, but each attempt earned me a sound of disapproval from Rachida. She also made a fluttering gesture with both hands, which meant, "Let the men do the heavy lifting. That's what they're good for, you know." She rushed around, handing me pens and paper that had not been packed as way of supporting my writing. When the apartment was empty, and we stood outside, Refaat said, "Eileen, we will miss you," and shook my hand. Rachida hugged me tight and murmured, "I thank your parents for having you." My friends got into the taxi, and I watched them leave the parking lot. Refaat waved, but Rachida was looking away. Deep down, I knew why: she was crying. Aching, I went back to my room. The Year of the Communities of Islam had taught me many things. In Rachida's classes, we read Edward Said Edward Wadie Sa?d, Arabic: إدوارد وديع سعيد, and John Esposito For the pianist named John Esposito, see .John Louis Esposito (born 19 May1940, Brooklyn, New York City) is a professor of International Affairs and Islamic Studies at Georgetown University. , both noted scholars in the field of Middle Eastern Studies, and we talked about Islam, economics, foreign policy, terrorism, and suicide bombing Noun 1. suicide bombing - a terrorist bombing carried out by someone who does not hope to survive itbombing - the use of bombs for sabotage; a tactic frequently used by terroristssuicide bombingn → . I wrote papers on the history of Turkey, feminist interpretations of the Qur'an, and Islamic banking Islamic banking refers to a system of banking or banking activity that is consistent with Islamic law (Sharia) principles and guided by Islamic economics. . But all of that paled in comparison to mealtime conversations about religion and seeing the face of God in Rachida. I learned through my religious Other that God was a not patriarchal monster, and it seems right (although ironic) that I discovered this at a secular (5) women's college. Rachida left Chatham with, among other things, a better picture of religious life in the United States United States,officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. . (6) "Religion in America Religion in North America Religion in the United States Religion in South America is not like religion in Europe Religion in Europe has a rich and diverse religious history, and its various faiths have been a major influence on European art, culture, philosophy and law. The majority of Europeans are Christian, of which nearly half are Catholic; the second-largest religion in Europe is Islam, ," she once remarked. "I now know that religion is very important to Americans." Three years later (and two of them spent at seminary), I look back on my year with Rachida El-Diwani, and I can say the greatest lesson I learned from her was the importance and necessity of bearing witness to the Truth. She praised God for my writing ability and considered it valuable and worth nurturing. In the spirit of bearing witness, then, I will say this: I have seen religion as oppression in Pittsburgh, Lancaster, Pennsylvania and Richmond, Indiana Richmond (IPA: [ˈrɪtʃ.mənd]) is a city in east central Indiana, which borders Ohio. It is sometimes called the "cradle of recorded jazz" because some early jazz records originated there at the studio of . I am also a witness to religion as transformation in Pittsburgh, Lancaster, and Richmond, and I am convinced that transformation is the harder and deeper task. Muslims and Christians have much to learn from each other, and being open to mutual enrichment is half the struggle. To be open, we need better images in our minds and newspapers, because we already have more than enough pictures of burning buildings, derailed trains, and blown-apart human bodies. Here is a picture I would like to see: women wearing colorful scarves and some wearing white bonnets, saying, Tell me about your head cover. What does it mean? Here is another picture: several families sitting around a table--or even sitting on the floor--passing shoofly pie shoofly pien.A pie with a filling of molasses and brown sugar.[So called because one will supposedly have to shoo away the flies attracted to the sweet filling.]Noun 1. and baklava. And my personal favorite: children playing Album InfoArtist: Ziggy Marley & The Melody Makers Genre: Reggae Label: EMI Records and Tuff Gong Year: 1986 TracksSide 1 Met Her On A Rainy Day Reggae Is Now Children Playing in the Streets Rock It Baby in a grassy yard or a desert tent, speaking Pennsylvania German and Arabic, understanding each other perfectly. Rachida and I are still in touch with each other. It is an infrequent e-mail correspondence, but she is with me in spirit constantly. "I am glad that you will go to the seminary to write and fulfill yourself," she wrote when I informed her of my post-undergraduate plans. During my first semester at the School of Religion, she sent this message: "Perhaps your gift of writing will help form bridges between your people and my people. You are open to the light that is to come. Please come to Egypt." I wrote back: "God-willing." EnshAllah. Notes 1. By the term "Conservative," I do not mean evangelical. I am referring to a group of Friends who often affiliate themselves with Ohio Yearly Meeting Members of the Religious Society of Friends, or Quakers, use the term Yearly Meeting to refer to an organization composed of a collection of smaller, more frequent constituent meetings within a geographical area. in Barnesville, Ohio Barnesville is a village in Belmont County, Ohio, United States. It is part of the Wheeling, West Virginia Metropolitan Statistical Area. The population was 4,225 at the 2000 census. GeographyBarnesville is located at (39. . Some people associated with OYM OYM Office of Youth MinistryOYM Open Your Mind are plain-dressed and sometimes plain-speaking (thee, thou). They are very interested in preserving what they see to be the original message of Friends, i.e., Christ-centered, unprogrammed, and plain--or modestly dressed. "Old Order" might be a good way of describing these Friends. Wilmer Cooper, the founding dean of the Earlham School of Religion Earlham School of Religion (ESR), a graduate division of Earlham College, located in Richmond, Indiana is the oldest graduate seminary associated with the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers). ESR was founded in 1960[1] by Wilmer Cooper, D. , grew up in this tradition. 2. From Lonnie Valentine's class handout summarizing John Fenton John Fenton (born December, 1954 in Midleton, County Cork) is a retired Irish sportsman. He played hurling with his local club Midleton and with the Cork senior inter-county team from 1975 until 1987. Fenton is regarded as one of Cork's greatest-ever players. , "What is Religion?" in Niels Nielsen Niels Nielsen may refer to: Niels Nielsen (sailor) (1883-1961), Norwegian Olympic silver medalist in 1920 Niels Nielsen, caretaker of the Old Man of the Mountain , Religions of the World, 1st ed. (New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of : St. Martins' Press, 1983). 3. Julia Kasdorf Julia Kasdorf (born December 6, 1962) is an American poet.Born Julia Spicher in Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, she grew up in the suburbs southeast of Pittsburgh near Irwin, Westmoreland County. draws on the work of Mikhail Bakhtin Mikhail Mikhailovich Bakhtin (Russian: Михаил Михайлович Бахти́н pronounced: to make this point in The Body and the Book (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Johns Hopkins University,mainly at Baltimore, Md. Johns Hopkins in 1867 had a group of his associates incorporated as the trustees of a university and a hospital, endowing each with $3.5 million. Daniel C. Press, 2001), 83. 4. I am well aware that not all women are in the position of being able to choose to wear religious dress, but it would be incorrect to assume that all women in such dress feel or even consider themselves to be oppressed. It happens to be my personal belief that it should be up to the individual woman to wear or not to wear religious markers, such as head coverings. 5. In this essay, I have expressed frustration with Chatham College's secular atmosphere. I do not want to imply, however, that I did not have a good experience at Chatham, because I most certainly did. Besides growing as a writer, a thinker, and a person, I discovered that my refusal to jettison jettison(jĕt`əsən, –zən)[O.Fr.,=throwing], in maritime law, casting all or part of a ship's cargo overboard to lighten the vessel or to meet some danger, such as fire. religious talk and practice allowed me to have conversations with Muslims, Jews, Wiccans, agnostics, and other Christians with differing theologies and politics. 6. I would like to acknowledge that this statement--and the entire essay--is my experience of Rachida. I am sure that she would have different things to say if she were writing about her experience at Chatham. Furthermore, she might not agree with everything I have written.

Remaking the world in our own image: Australia's efforts to liberalize trade in education services.

Remaking the world in our own image: Australia's efforts to liberalize trade in education services. Australia has developed a reputation as an aggressive andcompetitive provider of international education and an ardent (Ardent Software, Inc., Westboro, MA) A database vendor formed in 1998 as the merger of VMARK Software, Unidata and O2 Technology. Its products included the UniVerse and UniData databases and DataStage data warehouse utility. proponent One who offers or proposes.A proponent is a person who comes forward with an a item or an idea. A proponent supports an issue or advocates a cause, such as a proponent of a will. PROPONENT, eccl. law. of free trade in education services. This paper describesAustralia's role in promoting trade liberalization lib��er��al��ize?v. lib��er��al��ized, lib��er��al��iz��ing, lib��er��al��iz��esv.tr.To make liberal or more liberal: "Our standards of private conduct have been greatly liberalized . . . through theWorld Trade Organization's (WTO See World Trade Organization. ) General Agreement on Trade inServices The General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) is a treaty of the World Trade Organization (WTO) that entered into force in January 1995 as a result of the Uruguay Round negotiations. . When Australia first The phrase Australia First can refer to: Australia First Movement (founded 1941) Australia First Party (founded 1996) committed to open its education market toforeign providers in the WTO in 1995, there was little discussion of theimplications of such an undertaking; but with the rise of opposition toeconomic globalization globalizationProcess by which the experience of everyday life, marked by the diffusion of commodities and ideas, is becoming standardized around the world. Factors that have contributed to globalization include increasingly sophisticated communications and transportation and increased scrutiny of international tradeagreements, the government is hesitant hes��i��tant?adj.Inclined or tending to hesitate.hesi��tant��ly adv. to make any further commitments.On the international stage, however, Australia is playing a leading rolein promoting trade liberalization in a variety of international forums.The Australian government is pursuing a more diversified approach totrade promotion, which includes building confidence in internationalquality assurance mechanisms and demonstrating the benefits oftrade-driven internationalization The support for monetary values, time and date for countries around the world. It also embraces the use of native characters and symbols in the different alphabets. See localization, i18n, Unicode and IDN. internationalization - internationalisation to importing countries. Keywords development education educational cooperation educational quality international educational exchange globalization World Trade Organization Introduction As the World Trade Organization (WTO) proudly proclaims, theGeneral Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS GATS General Agreement on Trade in ServicesGATS Great American Trucking ShowGATS Gifted and Talented StudentsGATS Global Automotive Telematics StandardGATS GPS Aided Target SystemGATS Gyro Accelerometer Test SetGATS General Access Time Slot ) is 'the first everset of multilateral mul��ti��lat��er��al?adj.1. Having many sides.2. Involving more than two nations or parties: multilateral trade agreements. , legally enforceable rules covering internationaltrade in services', including education services. It dates from1994, and is the services counterpart of the General Agreement onTariffs and Trade General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade(GATT), former specialized agency of the United Nations. It was established in 1948 as an interim measure pending the creation of the International Trade Organization. (GATT See General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. GATTSee General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). ), which has regulated the trade in goods since1947. Both these agreements are administered by the WTO. Although it hasbeen in existence for nearly a decade, the GATS went largely unnoticedby the education sector in Australia and around the world until quiterecently. Since the highly publicized pub��li��cize?tr.v. pub��li��cized, pub��li��ciz��ing, pub��li��ciz��esTo give publicity to.Adj. 1. publicized - made known; especially made widely knownpublicised anti-WTO protests in Seattle in1999, however, the Agreement's treatment of education has becomeone of its most controversial aspects, along with health care and mediacontent. Education, like health care, is in most countries a coreactivity of the nation state and encouraging trade in these sectorsseems to many people to be a fundamental challenge to these publicservices Public services is a term usually used to mean services provided by government to its citizens, either directly (through the public sector) or by financing private provision of services. . With the globalization of communication systems, governments seethe preferential pref��er��en��tial?adj.1. Of, relating to, or giving advantage or preference: preferential treatment.2. treatment of local media content and other forms ofcultural production, including education, as crucial for continuednation building and cultural diversity. In this vein, Altbach (2001) hasdescribed using the GATS to promote trade in education as'globalization run amok'. 'Subjecting academe to therigors of a WTO-enforced marketplace', he warns, 'woulddestroy one of the most valuable institutions in any society'. Inthe same year, a consortium of European and North American North Americannamed after North America.North American blastomycosissee North American blastomycosis.North American cattle ticksee boophilusannulatus. organizationsrepresenting more than 500 universities issued a widely publicizeddeclaration on higher education higher educationStudy beyond the level of secondary education. Institutions of higher education include not only colleges and universities but also professional schools in such fields as law, theology, medicine, business, music, and art. and GATS which warned that 'littleis known about the consequences of including trade in education servicesin the GATS' and suggested that countries should make no furthercommitments (Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada The Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada (AUCC) is the voice of Canada's universities. Formed in 1911, it represents 92 public and private not-for-profit Canadian Universities and University Colleges in Canada. ,American Council on Education Established in 1918, the American Council on Education (ACE) is a United States organization comprising over 1,800 accredited, degree-granting colleges and universities and higher education-related associations, organizations, and corporations. , European University Association The European University Association (EUA) is the main voice of the higher education community in Europe. As of 15 April 2005, EUA has 760 members in 45 countries across Europe. , Councilfor Higher Education Accreditation Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) is a United States organization of degree-granting colleges and universities. Its purposes include providing national advocacy for self-regulation of academic quality through accreditation and providing scrutiny and certification of , 2001). Over the past several years,the Years, Thethe seven decades of Eleanor Pargiter’s life. [Br. Lit.: Benét, 1109]See : Time opposition to the GATS from the education sector has grown everlouder, particularly from student groups and unions in North America North America,third largest continent (1990 est. pop. 365,000,000), c.9,400,000 sq mi (24,346,000 sq km), the northern of the two continents of the Western Hemisphere. andEurope, and governments in developing countries who fear being unable tocontrol the activities of commercially motivated foreign providers ifthey are bound by the rules of the WTO. Many of the criticisms of theWTO and GATS are, in fact, criticisms of trade in education orcriticisms of the growth of private provision and funding rather thancriticisms of the trade agreement per se. The codification The collection and systematic arrangement, usually by subject, of the laws of a state or country, or the statutory provisions, rules, and regulations that govern a specific area or subject of law or practice. of the globaltrade system in the form of the WTO and the GATS provides a visible andtangible target for groups opposed to the direction of commercialdevelopment and the underlying dominant ideology The dominant ideology, in Marxist or marxian theory, is the set of common values and beliefs shared by most people in a given society, framing how the majority think about a range of topics, The dominant ideology is understood by Marxism to reflect, or serve, the interests of the of neoliberal ne��o��lib��er��al��ism?n.A political movement beginning in the 1960s that blends traditional liberal concerns for social justice with an emphasis on economic growth.ne globalism glob��al��ism?n.A national geopolitical policy in which the entire world is regarded as the appropriate sphere for a state's influence.glob . In response to criticisms of secrecy and back-room dealings,the WTO has quite rightly adopted a relatively transparent process inrecent years, but nevertheless this greater visibility may in factheighten height��en?v. height��ened, height��en��ing, height��ensv.tr.1. To raise or increase the quantity or degree of; intensify.2. To make high or higher; raise.v.intr. opposition in some quarters while further legitimating theprocess in others (Mundy & Ika, in press). Meanwhile, the Australian government has been a leading champion ofthe benefits of liberalization of higher education under GATS. In thewords of the director of international affairs Noun 1. international affairs - affairs between nations; "you can't really keep up with world affairs by watching television"world affairsaffairs - transactions of professional or public interest; "news of current affairs"; "great affairs of state" in the CommonwealthDepartment of Education, Science and Training (DEST DEST DestinationDEST DestroyDEST Department of Education, Science and Training (Australia)DEST Department of the Environment, Sport and Territories (Australia)), Australia is'hardly a neutral player' in this domain, and is'generally regarded (or demonized) as aggressive exporters ofeducation services' (Gallagher, 2002). Between 1995 and 2003, tradein education has increased dramatically, especially in the form oftransnational or offshore programs, which are most affected by tradeagreements. Education is now one of Australia's top service exportsectors, and the government is keen to use trade agreements as one meansof ensuring continuing export growth in the sector. During the Uruguay Round Main article: World Trade OrganizationSee also: General Agreement on Tariffs and TradeThe World Trade Organization conducts negotiations through what are called rounds. of global trade negotiations in the early1990s that led to the formation of the GATS and the WTO, Australia tookon the classic role of middle power diplomacy. Australia was committedto the inclusion of both services and agriculture in the Uruguay Roundand found itself on relatively good terms with negotiators fromdeveloping countries, whose main priority was agriculture, andnegotiators from the major powers, who were more interested in services.Australia's credibility was further enhanced by its history ofstrong unilateral unilateral/uni��lat��er��al/ (-lat��er-al) affecting only one side. u��ni��lat��er��aladj.On, having, or confined to only one side. liberalization of trade in services Trade in Services refers to the sale and delivery of an intangible product, called a service, between a producer and consumer. Trade in services takes place between a producer and consumer that are, in legal terms, based in different countries, or economies, this is called during the 1980s.Capling (2001) has described how Australia achieved a high level ofinfluence in early service negotiations that was disproportionate dis��pro��por��tion��ate?adj.Out of proportion, as in size, shape, or amount.dispro��por toAustralia's economic size, and was able to be 'influential inthe shaping of declaratory DECLARATORY. Something which explains, or ascertains what before was uncertain or doubtful; as a declaratory statute, which is one passed to put an end to a doubt as to what the law is, and which declares what it is, and what it has been. 1 Bl. Com. 86. language and the negotiation of operationalproposals and outcomes'. This was largely done through Australiasetting up and chairing the Rolle Group, a regular but informal meetingof service negotiators, through which Australian negotiators becamecrucial in facilitating discussions, providing technical information,clarifying conceptual issues and working to set the agenda. Theestablishment of global trade rules governing trade in services was veryimportant to Australia for two main reasons. First, as is the case forother developed economies, services account for the majority of economicactivity in Australia, and this proportion is growing as manufacturingindustries manufacturing industriesnpl → industrias fpl manufacturerasmanufacturing industriesnpl → industries fpl de transformation relocate to countries where labor costs are lower.Australia's future balance of trade was dependent upon being ableto find markets for its services abroad, to lessen the country'slongstanding dependence on exports from agriculture and mining. Thus,for the Labor government in power at the time, the development of theGATS and the integration of Australian services into the growinginternational trade in services was crucial to avoiding becoming a'banana republic'. The shift from aid to trade as the basis ofAustralian international education policy, which occurred in the late1980s, had already reframed the education sector on this basis. Second,Australia was committed to the establishment of a global trade systembecause it would not have done well out of a world carved carve?v. carved, carv��ing, carvesv.tr.1. a. To divide into pieces by cutting; slice: carved a roast.b. up into aseries of regional free trade agreements, and Australia's smallsize makes it relatively powerless in negotiating bilateral free tradeagreements with the major economic powers. In the current round ofnegotiations on trade in education services, Australia has pursued avery similar approach, attempting to set the agenda of negotiations andusing its technical expertise to shape the directions of negotiationsrather than relying on direct bargaining power, which it lacks due toits small size and already relatively open economy. How GATS operates The key principles of the GATS are threefold: the Market Accessprinciple, under which 'each Member shall accord services andservice suppliers of any other Member treatment no less favorable fa��vor��a��ble?adj.1. Advantageous; helpful: favorable winds.2. Encouraging; propitious: a favorable diagnosis.3. thanthat provided for under the terms, limitations and conditions agreed andspecified in its Schedule' (XVI.1); the National Treatmentprinciple, which provides for non-discrimination regarding conditions ofcompetition once a service or a provider is in the market; the MostFavored Nation Most Favored NationA privilege granted by one country to another whereby the products of the privileged country pay the lowest delivered duty paid charged by the granting country. principle, under which there should not be discriminationbetween the treatment of member countries. Related to these is therequirement that regulations regarding market entry should betransparent. The GATS classifies trade in services into four numberedmodes: (1) cross-border supply (such as distance education); (2)consumption abroad (such as a student traveling abroad to study); (3)commercial presence (such as foreign branch campuses, or foreigners Foreignersalienagethe condition of being an alien.androlepsyLaw. the seizure of foreign subjects to enforce a claim for justice or other right against their nation.gypsyologist, gipsyologistRare. partnering with local providers); (4) presence of natural persons (suchas lecturers traveling temporarily abroad to teach). The GATS coverstwelve categories of services, one of which is education, and theeducation sector is further divided into five subsectors (primary,secondary, higher, adult, and other). The classification is notmandatory, although most members use it. Because of serious hesitation about the impact of a free tradeagreement on services when the agreement was being negotiated in theearly 1990s, a compromise was reached in which the agreement wouldinclude some requirements that would apply to all services and all WTOmember states, and other requirements that would be voluntary, allowingeach WTO member to commit to some sectors and some modes of supply, butnot others. The principles of transparent regulation and equal treatmentfor all WTO members became incorporated as general rules, whereas thegranting of Market Access and National Treatment was to be optional.Each country submits a national schedule, which lists each subsector andeach mode of supply, and sets out whether Market Access or NationalTreatment is to be offered to foreign service suppliers in each case. Education was one of the least committed sectors during the UruguayRound negotiations. Very few developed countries made more substantialcommitments than Australia (Norway and New Zealand New Zealand(zē`lənd), island country (2005 est. pop. 4,035,000), 104,454 sq mi (270,534 sq km), in the S Pacific Ocean, over 1,000 mi (1,600 km) SE of Australia. The capital is Wellington; the largest city and leading port is Auckland. are notableexceptions) and a few very poor nations made significant commitments inthe hope that doing so would lure foreign investment in education. Lessthan one third of the WTO's 145 member states have made commitmentsin the education sector, and most of those simply elaborated currentpolicies rather than offering further liberalization. The number ofcountries committing in the different education sectors is small butrelatively constant: 30 on primary education, 35 on secondary education,32 on tertiary education Tertiary education, also referred to as third-stage, third level education, or higher education, is the educational level following the completion of a school providing a secondary education, such as a high school, secondary school, or gymnasium. and 32 on adult education (OECD OECD:see Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. , 2002).Although these 'standstill' commitments did not represent anynew liberalizing of these countries' trade policies, they do bindthese policies in an international legal framework and make theintroduction of new restrictive measures considerably more difficult.Most countries have more open trade environments than their GATSschedules would suggest, but are unwilling to bind these policies into alegally enforceable international agreement in which retractingcommitments to open markets is difficult and potentially costly. Mundy and Ika (in press) have analyzed the level of commitmentsmade so far covering education services and found a clear relationshipwith the level of private funding of education; the pattern they foundis that the lower the level of private funding, the more significant thecommitment made. One major reason for this is that where there is a lowproportion of private funding, existing (public) institutions areassured of retaining their (public) funding regardless of the number ofprivate providers allowed to establish. Where there is a high proportionof private funding, existing providers would be directly competing withnew foreign entrants for the private funds available, and existingproviders would feel threatened by the prospect of internationalizedcompetition. Where direct payment from students is a major proportion ofthe sector's income, GATS commitments have much greater impact and,in these countries, governments are likely to be under greater pressureto restrict entry to and discriminate against new providers fromoverseas. For example, if we look at higher education in our region, NewZealand and Australia have lower levels of private funds directed tohigher education than Malaysia and Singapore, and the former countrieshave made significant commitments to market openness in higher educationwhereas the latter countries have not, and have retained the right torestrict the number, size and type of foreign providers operating inthese lucrative and fiercely competitive markets (for a comparison ofthese countries' policies, see Ziguras, in press). When the GATS came into force in 1995, it stipulated that a newround of negotiations on countries' specific commitments wouldcommence within five years. This new 'millennium' round wouldhave begun at the Seattle meeting, but was abandoned and recommenced inDoha in 2002 and is due to conclude in January 2005. Although GATS is amultilateral agreement involving all the WTO's 145 members, thecurrent round of negotiations begin with a bilateral process of requestsand offers. The first stage involves WTO members filing requests askingother members to open their markets in particular service areas. Theinitial dead-line for requests was 30 June 2002, but these can actuallybe submitted any time until negotiations close. Members were asked tosubmit initial offers to open their markets by 31 March 2003. During thenegotiation period, a variety of formal and informal meetings of tradenegotiators are held, most important of which is the ministerial meetingto be held late in 2003 in Cancun, Mexico. As at April 2003, 30 members have tabled their education requestsand around 20 have submitted their offers. Countries are not required topublish their offers or requests, but may choose to do so. The requestsof the European Community European Community:see European Union. European Community (EC)Organization formed in 1967 with the merger of the European Economic Community, European Coal and Steel Community, and European Atomic Energy Community. (EC) and the United States of America UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. The name of this country. The United States, now thirty-one in number, are Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, New Hampshire, (USA)have been 'leaked' and published by organizations such as GATSWatch and Education International. Several countries have publishedtheir offers (or lack of new offers in the case of some sectors). Forexample, Japan has made offers on adult and other education but nothigher education, the USA has made limited commitments, Australia andNew Zealand have made no further commitments, and Canada has made nocommitment. Australia as Australia A may refer to: The Australia A cricket team The Australia A rugby union team an education importer During the Uruguay Round negotiations, Australia made considerablecommitments relating to relating torelate prep → concernantrelating torelate prep → bez��glich +gen, mit Bezug auf +accprivate education services in SecondaryEducation Services, Higher Education Services and Other EducationServices but made no commitments related to Primary Education Servicesor Adult Education Services (DFAT DFAT Department of Foreign Affairs and TradeDFAT Destination Final Acceptance Test , 2003). There are no specialprovisions related to the movement of natural persons in education, solecturers, teachers and educational managers are subject to the samevisa conditions as workers in any other sector wishing to work inAustralia. Australia made Market Access undertakings for the three othermodes of supply--cross-border delivery, consumption abroad andcommercial presence--meaning that Australian governments For the operations of Australia's federal government, see Government of Australia Queen of Australia Governor-General of Australia Prime Minister of Australia Parliament of Australia High Court of Australia Australian electoral system will not limitthe number of providers, the number of students they may enrol, thelegal form of new entrants (cooperative organization, for--profitcompany, statutory organization, etc.) or limit foreign ownership ofproviders. Australia also committed to National Treatment forcross-border delivery and consumption abroad, which means thatgovernments cannot discriminate between domestic and foreign serviceproviders. One important exception was that Australia did not commit toNational Treatment for commercial presence, and retained the option todiscriminate between domestic and foreign providers in the allocation ofgovernment subsidies. In the research and development servicessubsector, Australia made commitments to Market Access and NationalTreatment for social sciences and humanities research. This does notapply to government subsidies for research and development, which remainunbound unboundsaid of electrolytes, e.g. iron and calcium, and other substances which are circulating in the bloodstream and are not bound to plasma proteins so that they are available immediately for metabolic processes. See also calcium, iron. under horizontal commitments. When these commitments were made in the WTO, they were not newpolicies for Australia, but simply reflected government policies at thetime and so were uncontroversial. These commitments do not appear tohave had any impact on the number or size of foreign education providersoperating in Australia. These Market Access commitments will, however,restrict future governments' ability to shape private sectorprovision in the public interest if it becomes necessary. In particular,governments will have difficulty placing restrictions on the number ofproviders, the number of students they may enrol, the legal form of newproviders (co-operative organization, for-profit company, statutoryorganization, etc.), or levels of foreign ownership. At present, thereis no pressing need for Australian governments to impose such measures;however such intervention into the development of the private educationmarket could be in the public interest at some point in the future. Afuture Australian government which wished to roll back Australia'sMarket Access commitments in these ways may be liable to paycompensation to affected countries, a prospect that may reduce futuregovernments' capacities to deal with various forms of marketfailure in education should they arise (Association for the PublicUniversity, 2003; NTEU NTEU National Tertiary Education Union (Australia)NTEU National Treasury Employees UnionNTEU Non-Teaching Employees Union (Philippines), 2001). Since 1995, Australian governments have taken steps to formalizeprocesses for approvals and recognition of foreign providers operatingin Australia, most notably in higher education with the development ofthe Ministerial Council on Employment, Education, Training and YouthAffairs' (2000) National protocols for higher education approvalprocesses. This sets out the standards expected of universities,irrespective of irrespective ofprep.Without consideration of; regardless of.irrespective ofpreposition despitewhether they are existing providers or new entrants,locally based or of international origin, and provides a clear exampleof the ways in which institutional standards can be ensured in an openinternational environment. The Victorian government has signaled itsintention to ensure that Melbourne University Private Melbourne University Private (MUP) was a private university spinoff founded by the University of Melbourne in Australia, which operated from July 1998 to 2005. It was designed as a profit making venture, independent of as much government control as possible, in an attempt to meets therequirements of the national protocols, and such actions by governmentsset important precedents that reassure the educational community thatnew universities, whether of local or foreign origin, must be consistentwith the character and standards expected of Australian universities. Around the world, public educational institutions and educationunions are understandably concerned about the future of public funding Public funding is money given from tax revenue or other governmental sources to an individual, organization, or entity. See alsoPublic funding of sports venues Research funding Funding body for education. There is a widely held perception that the GATS willrequire governments to extend equivalent levels of funding to privateproviders and foreign providers. Publicly there does not seem to be anyinterest on the part of governments to limit other governments'capacities to fund public education. Several of the most enthusiasticprotagonists of trade liberalization in education, the USA, Australiaand New Zealand, have made negotiating proposals to the WTO thatexplicitly recognize that education is to a large extent a governmentfunction and that the private sector should supplement, rather thandisplace dis��place?tr.v. dis��placed, dis��plac��ing, dis��plac��es1. To move or shift from the usual place or position, especially to force to leave a homeland: , pubic pubic/pu��bic/ (pu��bik) pertaining to or situated near the pubes, the pubic bone, or the pubic region. pu��bicadj.1. provision (WTO, 1998, 2000, 2001a, 2001b). However thesestatements do not appear to have reassured most education bodies andpublic providers, principally because the proponents of tradeliberalization have not effectively explained the practical significanceof Market Access and National Treatment undertakings on funding foreducation. Article 1.3 allows for the exclusion from GATS agreements of'a service supplied in the exercise of governmentalauthority', which is defined as 'any service which is suppliedneither on a commercial basis, nor in competition with one or moreservice suppliers'. (Note that both criteria would need to be metfor this to apply.) Some commentators suggest that education could beexcepted under Article 1.3. However, in systems already combining a mixof private and public provision (and therefore competition) and wherefees are charged (and therefore can be deemed commercial), it would notseem likely that these criteria could be met. Legal opinion commissionedby the Canadian Association of University Teachers confirms thatgovernments and institutions should not rely on such an exemption (Colas& Gottlieb, 2001). It is apparent that National Treatment and Market Access principlesdo not apply to government procurement Government procurement, also called public tendering, is the procurement of goods and services on behalf of a public authority, such as a government agency. With 10 to 15% of GDP in developed countries, and up to 20% in developing countries, government procurement accounts . There is considerabledisagreement both in Australia and overseas about the extent to whichdifferent types of subsidies (such as funding of student places andresearch funding Research funding is a term generally covering any funding for scientific research, in the areas of both "hard" science and technology and social science. The term often connotes funding obtained through a competitive process, in which potential research projects are evaluated and ) would constitute government procurement, and thus beexempted from coverage under the GATS. The fact that local students makeco-payments and are increasingly privately funded further confuses thisissue. Australia's GATS undertakings, like those of several otherWTO members, explicitly apply only to private education services;however the meaning of the terms employed to make this distinctionbetween public and private provision remain unclear and a cause ofconcern for the education community. Australia could alleviate theseconcerns by providing legal opinions on the implications of GATS forexisting forms of government funding. We believe that such advice hasbeen obtained by the Commonwealth Government and provided to stategovernments during earlier consultations, but there is a serious lack ofauthoritative information on these issues in the public sphere The public sphere is a concept in continental philosophy and critical theory that contrasts with the private sphere, and is the part of life in which one is interacting with others and with society at large. inAustralia, and the resulting void has fueled opposition to furtherundertakings. According to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. the Department of Foreign Affairs foreign affairspl.n.Affairs concerning international relations and national interests in foreign countries. and Trade (DFAT,2003), most of the requests received by Australia asked for fullcommitments on Secondary Education Services, Higher Education Services,and Other Education Services, and a few also requested full commitmentson Primary Education Services and Adult Education Services. Somerequests sought clarification as to what types of education services inthe Australian system are covered under the different classifications,and others sought more detail about National Treatment exclusions,perhaps to prompt Australia to commit to National Treatment forcommercial presence and specify exclusions rather than leaving this modeuncommitted as it is now. In relation to research and developmentservices, Australia received requests to expand its existing commitmentsto include natural sciences and interdisciplinary research anddevelopment. Australia's initial offer, made public in March 2003, did notinclude any further commitments on education or research services,although subsequent offers may be made during the course of the DohaRound negotiations. Australia's approach has been to stress that ithas already made considerable commitments to open its education sectorin the Uruguay Round, and wishes to see this level of commitment matchedby its main trading partners before itself considering furthercommitments. The government has also stated that it will not commit toNational Treatment for foreign educational institutions with acommercial presence, because this may mean that these foreign providerscould be entitled en��ti��tle?tr.v. en��ti��tled, en��ti��tling, en��ti��tles1. To give a name or title to.2. To furnish with a right or claim to something: to the same public subsidies as local publicinstitutions. Such statements indicate that the government is notentirely clear about the implications of the GATS for funding, or themeaning of the stipulation An agreement between attorneys that concerns business before a court and is designed to simplify or shorten litigation and save costs.During the course of a civil lawsuit, criminal proceeding, or any other type of litigation, the opposing attorneys may come to an agreement in Australia's GATS schedule ofcommitments that they apply to private education services only. Following the release of the government's initial offer, mostof the domestic opposition to Australia's involvement in the GATShas focused on the way negotiations have been handled. For example, adiscussion paper on the GATS explaining the current commitments and thenature of requests received was released early in 2003 only afterrepeated calls from the opposition parties in the Senate for suchinformation (DFAT, 2003). Although a call for comments from interestedparties accompanied this discussion paper, there was no opportunity forpublic scrutiny of Australia's offer before it was lodged with theWTO and later publicly released. These issues are being explored indetail by the Senate Foreign Affairs, Defense and Trade Committee'sInquiry into the General Agreement on Trade in Services and the ProposedAustralia--US Free Trade Agreement. Because of the high public profile of this round of global tradetalks, compared with previous rounds, DFAT did engage in significantlymore public consultation than in previous rounds, includingconsultations with unions and non-government organizations. At thesemeetings, DFAT representatives explained that Australia would not makeany GATS commitments that would change existing policy settings, butwhere Australia had engaged in autonomous liberalization since 1995,these new policies may be included in Australia's offer.Conceivably con��ceive?v. con��ceived, con��ceiv��ing, con��ceivesv.tr.1. To become pregnant with (offspring).2. , then, future Australian offers in this round ofnegotiations could include commitments covering Primary EducationServices and Adult Education Services if, as we understand, there are nopolicies in place restricting foreign providers in these subsectors.Significantly Trade Minister Mark Vaille has stated that Australia willnot be making any offers in the areas of public education, but has notruled out offers on private education services in these subsectors or onthose research services that are not currently included. Using the WTO to expand Australia's education export markets Australian Bureau of Statistics The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) is the Australian government agency that collects and publishes statistical information about Australia and its people. Population and HousingThe agency undertakes the Australian Census of Population and Housing. figures show that education nowconstitutes the third most lucrative services export sector, generating$4.1 billion in export income. Tourism and transportation are the onlyservices sectors with larger export earnings, bringing in $9.3 billionand $7.6 billion respectively. Education service exports grew by 2.9 percent in the 2002 financial year, whereas growth in many other servicesectors stalled during this period (Way, 2003). In terms of theWTO's classification, the number of international students inAustralian universities in each mode of supply were as follows in firstsemester se��mes��ter?n.One of two divisions of 15 to 18 weeks each of an academic year.[German, from Latin (cursus) s of 2003: Number of Percentage students of totalConsumption aboard (internationalstudents in Australia) 114570 68Commercial presence (offshoreface-to-face) 39 154 23Cross border (offshore distanceeducation) 15 656 9Total 169 380 100Source: IDP Education Australia (2003) For Australian universities, the proportion of transnationalenrolments increased from one-quarter to one-third of all internationalstudent enrolments between 1996 and 2001, and IDP Education Australia IDP Education Australia (IDP) is a global, commercial education agent and development organisation with head offices in Canberra and Sydney, offering international education and development services. The organisation is now partly-owned by SEEK.COM. predicts that, by 2025, half of Australia's international studentswill be studying overseas (Bohm, Davis, Meares, & Pearce, 2002). During the 1990s, GATS did not figure prominently in the thinkingof Australian education exporting institutions, since few of thecountries in which rapid growth in overseas activity was taking placehad made significant undertakings on education services during theUruguay Round. Despite not engaging with the WTO process, many ofAustralia's major trading partners in education servicesunilaterally u��ni��lat��er��al?adj.1. Of, on, relating to, involving, or affecting only one side: "a unilateral advantage in defense"New Republic.2. created more open environments for transnational educationthrough the 1990s, in order to increase the number and range of highereducation places available, and to limit the growth in the number ofstudents traveling abroad to study. This led Australian educationexporting institutions to view the WTO process as rather irrelevant, andoperating at such a level of legal abstraction as to be irrelevant totheir operations on the ground. Although this profound growth has taken place chiefly outside theinfluence of GATS, there are currently several pressing factors thatgive impetus to the interest of education exporters in the future oftrade liberalization. First, it is clear that if institutions want toexpand international student numbers significantly in the future, muchof that expansion will probably have to be offshore. Some universitiesare approaching a physical limit (and perhaps a philosophical limit) onthe number of international students they can comfortably welcome oncampus in Australia. This matter has been raised by industry andgovernment speakers, including Gallagher (2002) of DEST, at severalforums. As they pursue opportunities offshore, issues relating to hostcountry regulatory requirements Regulatory requirements are part of the process of drug discovery and drug development. Regulatory requirements describe what is necessary for a new drug to be approved for marketing in any particular country. will therefore become increasinglyimportant for institutions. Second, it is likely that future competitionwill be more intense. Both Singapore and Malaysia--traditionally majorsuppliers of international students to Australian educationinstitutions--have declared their intention of becoming net exporters,and 'hub' education providers for the region. Several Europeancountries, including Germany and Denmark, are exploring thepossibilities for attracting fee-paying international students,including via transnational education. Third, and perhaps mostimportantly Adv. 1. most importantly - above and beyond all other consideration; "above all, you must be independent"above all, most especially , Australian institutions have become more interested in theGATS as a mechanism to increase access to overseas education markets,since China's accession Coming into possession of a right or office; increase; augmentation; addition.The right to all that one's own property produces, whether that property be movable or immovable; and the right to that which is united to it by accession, either naturally or artificially. to the WTO in 2001 involved it in makingsignificant new undertakings on education services which have resultedin rapidly growing numbers of Chinese students in Australia, and sentAustralian institutions scrambling to establish new joint programs withChinese universities. The ability of WTO negotiations to bring aboutpolicy shifts of this kind has created significant interest both on thepart of the Australian government and Australian education exportinginstitutions. A significant potential benefit of the GATS is the lowering of riskfor exporting institutions, and an enhanced ability for institutions toplan effectively. A transparent, non-discriminatory regulatory regime,with recourse to legal redress Compensation for injuries sustained; recovery or restitution for harm or injury; damages or equitable relief. Access to the courts to gain Reparation for a wrong. REDRESS. The act of receiving satisfaction for an injury sustained. in case of dispute, can minimize thefinancial, legal and sovereign risks Sovereign RiskThe risk that a foreign central bank will alter its foreign-exchange regulations thereby significantly reducing or completely nulling the value of foreign-exchange contracts. associated with transnationaloperations. The types of liberalization promoted by GATS are directlyrelevant to the following planning considerations typically encounteredby institutions intending to offer programs in host-country locationsoffshore: * transparency of approvals processes * consistent application of rules * ownership, equity and governance * who can teach * who can be taught * what disciplines can be taught * what delivery methods can be used * movement of materials and people * movement of money. Although GATS (and other trade agreements) have the potential toreduce the risks that arise from government decisions in the hostjurisdiction, it must be emphasized that institutions still have to bearthe risks that arise from their own shortcomings A shortcoming is a character flaw.Shortcomings may also be: Shortcomings (SATC episode), an episode of the television series Sex and the City and the vicissitudes vicissitudesNoun, plchanges in circumstance or fortune [Latin vicis change]vicissitudesnpl → vicisitudes fpl; peripecias fplofthe market. There is scope for the government to complement its work onbarriers in trade by conducting a study of the non-regulatory problemsthat institutions face offshore, and ways in which these can be tackledin order to maintain the sound academic and business conduct ofAustralian transnational education. Australia's strategy during this round of negotiations hasbeen to work through a range of international bodies and forums toattempt to shape the agenda of international discussions and providesources of information and advice that support its liberalizationagenda. This is similar to the facilitation FacilitationThe process of providing a market for a security. Normally, this refers to bids and offers made for large blocks of securities, such as those traded by institutions. role that Australia playedin getting the GATS established in the early 1990s, but this timeAustralia is a much more visible player. Australia's first forayinto Verb 1. foray into - enter someone else's territory and take spoils; "The pirates raided the coastal villages regularly"raidencroach upon, intrude on, obtrude upon, invade - to intrude upon, infringe, encroach on, violate; "This new colleague invades my the trade in education services discussions in the preparations forthe current negotiations was to co-sponsor, with New Zealand, a studyconducted under the auspices of the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation(APEC APECin full Asia-Pacific Economic CooperationTrade group established in 1989 in response to the growing interdependence of Asia-Pacific economies and the advent of regional economic blocs (such as the European Union and the North American Free Trade Area) ) organization which focused on barriers to trade and investment ineducation services in the Asia-Pacific region, although the terminologywas changed to 'measures affecting' trade and investment afterother APEC member economies expressed concern about the bias implicit in Adj. 1. implicit in - in the nature of something though not readily apparent; "shortcomings inherent in our approach"; "an underlying meaning"underlying, inherent the language (APEC, 2001). Australia's 'Negotiating Proposal for EducationServices', which was submitted to the WTO in 2001, listed numerousimpediments IMPEDIMENTS, contracts. Legal objections to the making of a contract. Impediments which relate to the person are those of minority, want of reason, coverture, and the like; they are sometimes called disabilities. Vide Incapacity. 2. to trade in the sector, and drew heavily on the recentlyreleased APEC study. The impediments specified included visarequirements, foreign exchange requirements, qualification recognitionissues, restrictions on ownership and foreign equity, lack of regulatorytransparency, employment restrictions and import restrictions oneducational materials (WTO, 2001a). In an obvious attempt to deflect de��flect?intr. & tr.v. de��flect��ed, de��flect��ing, de��flectsTo turn aside or cause to turn aside; bend or deviate.[Latin d criticism of Australia's aggressive commercialism in theinternational education marketplace, the negotiating proposal arguedthat the trade and non-financial dimensions of the internationalizationof education are closely linked. The statement is worth quoting atlength: Australia also sees the liberalization of trade in education services as the most effective way of encouraging the internationalization of education and enhancing flows of students between countries. The long-term benefits accruing from internationalizing education include: * fostering a knowledge and appreciation of other languages, cultures and societies. The skills and knowledge that are acquired will benefit students both professionally and culturally; * facilitating an exchange of people, ideas and experiences. These exchanges add a richness of diversity at the national and international levels, as well as contributing to the international cross-fertilization of academic knowledge; * networking relationships among individuals, groups and institutions which can facilitate future economic, political and socio-cultural alliances. These significant benefits underpin the desirability of facilitating greater cross-border flows of students as well as educational services providers. To date, four countries have submitted negotiating statements oneducation services: the USA (WTO, 1998, 2000), New Zealand (WTO, 2001b),Australia (WTO, 2001a) and Japan (WTO, 2002). The statements of allthree education exporters, the USA, Australia and New Zealand, containedlists of the types of impediments to trade that they wished to seeremoved in the negotiating rounds. Each notes the access andcapacity-building aspects of trade in education services, whilestressing the public good and national aspects of education, and theconcomitant concomitant/con��com��i��tant/ (kon-kom��i-tant) accompanying; accessory; joined with another. concomitantadjective Accompanying, accessory, joined with another need--in the words of the Australian statement--forgovernments to 'retain their sovereign right to determine their owndomestic funding and regulatory policies/measures' (WTO, 2001a).The statements refer to the current widespread coexistence co��ex��ist?intr.v. co��ex��ist��ed, co��ex��ist��ing, co��ex��ists1. To exist together, at the same time, or in the same place.2. of public andprivate education provision within countries but, to quote the USAdocument, envision that 'private education and training willcontinue to supplement, not displace, public education systems'(WTO, 2000). The Japanese statement cautiously endorsed greaterliberalization through GATS and stressed the need for quality assuranceand consumer protection as preconditions for greater openness. On the domestic front, DEST commissioned two background studies.The first was a mapping study conducted in 2001, which collectedinformation on the types of impediment A disability or obstruction that prevents an individual from entering into a contract.Infancy, for example, is an impediment in making certain contracts. Impediments to marriage include such factors as consanguinity between the parties or an earlier marriage that is still valid. to trade faced by Australianexporters in 19 of Australia's major trading partners. The studyteam consulted education providers, non-government organizations,overseas embassies, federal, state and territory governments, andresearchers. It identified 233 specific barriers in these countries,which were prioritized to form the basis of Australia's requestsduring the formal negotiating round (Gallagher, 2003b). (1) A secondstudy, conducted in 2002, described the treatment of education inprevious trade agreements and examined a range of strategies used in thenegotiation of trade agreements that were relevant to the negotiation ofeducation services in the current GATS round. (2) Australia made requests regarding education services to around 20WTO members but these requests have not been publicized. The types ofimpediments concerned can be gleaned from the APEC study and the variousnegotiation statements, but these do not link the specific impedimentslisted to the country involved. We can presume pre��sume?v. pre��sumed, pre��sum��ing, pre��sumesv.tr.1. To take for granted as being true in the absence of proof to the contrary: We presumed she was innocent. that they would bear someresemblance to the requests purportedly made by the USA, which hassimilar interests. An unofficial version of the USA requests has beenposted on the Education International website, and although it may notbe an accurate representation of the actual requests, the listedbarriers are consistent with our knowledge of the countries'regulations governing foreign providers (APEC, 2001; GATE, 1999). Inaddition to a general request for market access and national treatmentcommitments by countries that have not yet committed, there are numerouscountry--specific requests, a sample of which is reproduced below: China * Remove ban on education services provided by foreign companiesand organizations via satellite networks. Remove requirements forforeign educational institutions to partner with Chinese universities.Remove ban on for-profit operations in education and training services.Relax other operational limits and restrictions on geographic scope ofactivities. South Africa South Africa,Afrikaans Suid-Afrika, officially Republic of South Africa, republic (2005 est. pop. 44,344,000), 471,442 sq mi (1,221,037 sq km), S Africa. * Remove burdensome requirements, including non-transparent needstests, applicable to foreign universities operating, or seeking tooperate, in South Africa. Turkey, Italy * Remove requirement that foreign entities teach only non-nationalstudents. Greece * Remove restriction that the granting of degrees is limited toGreek institutions only. India, Philippines, Thailand * Remove ownership limitations on joint ventures with localpartners. Japan, Israel * Recognize degrees issued by accredited accreditedrecognition by an appropriate authority that the performance of a particular institution has satisfied a prestated set of criteria.accredited herdscattle herds which have achieved a low level of reactors to, e.g. institutions of highereducation (including those issued by branch campuses of accreditedinstitutions); and adopt a policy of transparency in governmentlicensing and accrediting policy with respect to higher education andtraining. It is worth noting in passing that these requests from the USA havebeen met with scorn from a number of developing countries who point outthat the USA is asking for commitments that it is not prepared to makeitself. Among developed countries, the USA is among the least committedto market openness for education services in the WTO. This is a problemfor Australian negotiators since, in the current global climate in whichAustralian foreign policy is seen by many as clearly tied to Americaninterests, Australia's trading partners may pay more attention tothe USA's actions than Australia's words. At the other end of the spectrum, Norway is the developed countrywith the most open education services market in the GATS. In 2002,Norway formed an alliance to cooperatively explore issues arising fromthe treatment of education as a tradable service in the WTO and relatethese to international quality assurance developments taking place inother international forums (Gallagher, 2003b). This grouping includesAustralia, New Zealand, South Africa, Japan, India, Uruguay, Argentina,Chile, Thailand, People's Republic People's Republicn.A political organization founded and controlled by a national Communist party. of China, Egypt, Senegal,Turkey, Jordan, Kenya and Mexico. The group is an interesting mix of netimporters and net exporters, ranged across a spectrum of attitudestowards trade liberalization, but with a shared interest in dealing withissues such as the public good, quality assurance and consumerprotection (Gallagher, 2003a). Explaining Australia's interest inthis grouping, Gallagher, head of Australian Education International,the section of the education department concerned with the promotion ofAustralian education abroad, made clear the mix of self-interested andcooperative motivations at work: We are very supportive of the Alliance as it may play a significant role in developing a better understanding of the different needs and circumstances of both importing and exporting member economies. It may also help to alleviate some of the concerns and misunderstanding regarding trade in education services. Additionally, given the absence of our major competitors in the Alliance such as USA, UK and Canada, our involvement may give us considerable competitive advantages. Australia is a key participant in this grouping, and is workingwith the OECD to host an international conference on trade in servicesin Sydney in 2004. This will be the third in a series and positionsAustralia as a key player in the international discussions at a crucialperiod during the culminations of the Doha Round. The first of theseconferences was held in Washington in 2002 and the second in Trondheim,Norway in 2003. To its credit, the DEST has been using these international forumsto discuss the range of issues that are of concern to educationimporting countries. Gallagher acknowledges that the regulationsidentified as barriers by exporters are often regarded as vital measuresto safeguard the integrity and quality of the local system. There isconsiderable concern in many countries that trade liberalization wouldresult in a rapid and uncontrolled influx of foreign providers, whichgovernment agencies would be powerless to regulate. The Australianapproach to these concerns has been to actively engage in thedevelopment of international quality assurance endeavors and discussionsof ways to deal with the range of concerns within a more open tradeenvironment. Widely discussed internationally based strategies includethe promotion of increased cooperation between national qualityassurance agencies, the creation of internationally agreed standards,and the formation of new quality assurance bodies with an internationalmandate (Van Damme, 2002). Such strategies would facilitate aninternational convergence in higher education quality assurance, and maybe able to achieve enhanced international mobility of students,professions and qualifications, greater protection of the consumers ofinternational education services, increased competitiveness for highquality exporters and more robust protective filtering methods forimporting states. Since 1995, Australia has taken steps to develop an impressiveregulatory framework to ensure the quality and international openness ofthe sector, and such measures demonstrate to Australia's tradingpartners that high quality and educational standards can be compatiblewith more internationalized educational environments. For example, in2002 Australia became the first non-European country to ratify ratifyv. to confirm and adopt the act of another even though it was not approved beforehand. Example: An employee for Holsinger's Hardware orders carpentry equipment from Phillips Screws and Nails although the employee was not authorized to buy anything. theLisbon Recognition Convention The Lisbon Recognition Convention is an international convention of the Council of Europe and UNESCO. The Convention has been signed by all 47 member states of the Council of Europe in Strasbourg except for Andorra, Greece, Monaco, San Marino and Sapin. , developed by the Council of Europe Council of Europe,international organization founded in 1949 to promote greater unity within Europe and to safeguard its political and cultural heritage by promoting human rights and democracy. The council is headquartered in Strasbourg, France. andUNESCO UNESCO:see United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. UNESCOin full United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization , which facilitates mutual academic recognition and mobility ofqualifications among signatory sig��na��to��ry?adj.Bound by signed agreement: the signatory parties to a contract.n. pl. sig��na��to��riesOne that has signed a treaty or other document. countries (Council of Europe, 1997).Australia helped frame the Code of Good Practice in the Provision ofTransnational Education, which is included under the Lisbon RecognitionConvention and has played an important role in establishing principlesof consumer protection and quality assurance in this field (UNESCO &Council of Europe, 2000). Similarly, the development of the Australian Universities QualityAgency (AUQA AUQA Australian Universities Quality Agency ) has already had an impressive impact in improving theaccountability and transparency of transnational programs. AUQAevaluates the performance of universities' quality assurancemeasures in relation to international education with reference to theAustralian Vice-Chancellors' Committee's Provision ofeducation to international students: Code and guidelines guidelines,n.pl a set of standards, criteria, or specifications to be used or followed in the performance of certain tasks. for Australianuniversities, to which all Australian universities are signatories(AVCC AVCC Australian Vice-Chancellors' CommitteeAVCC Average Carbonaceous ChondritesAVCC Audio Visual Consultant CenterAVCC anti Virus Control Center , 2002). The progressive strengthening of the AVCC's code ofpractice for international education over the past decade demonstratesto international audiences the growing maturity of the sector. Now thatAUQA is active in assessing compliance with the AVCC's code,Australia has a reputable quality assurance system for offshoreprovision, which is an essential element in promoting openness amongAustralia's trading partners. By showcasing measures such as theseand processes for the recognition of foreign providers, Australia isable to demonstrate and promote regulatory measures that provide forinternationalization of educational provision while ensuring that thecharacter and integrity of the local education system is protected. Many regulating agencies and education bodies in Australia andoverseas have expressed concerns about the potential effect of tradeagreements on the quality of education. The CATS Article 6.4 stipulatesthat 'measures relating to qualification requirements andprocedures, technical standards and licensing requirements do notconstitute unnecessary barriers to trade in services' so long asthey are 'objective and transparent' and 'not moreburdensome than necessary to ensure the quality of the service'.Australia has been an active member of the Working Party on DomesticRegulation and has proposed a necessity test and transparencyrequirements. Such efforts to develop and clarify the Agreement are veryimportant, since the implications of this section of the Agreement foreducation services have been vigorously debated. For example, therequirement to adopt 'least trade restrictive' licensingrequirements has been criticized by the National Tertiary EducationUnion The National Tertiary Education Union (NTEU - formally called the National Tertiary Education Industry Union) is an Australian trade union for University academic and general (non-academic) staff. for potentially encouraging a 'race to the bottom' interms of educational quality (NTEU, 2001). Australia is now attemptingto reassure other governments and education bodies by demonstrating howexisting national and international quality assurance measures would beaffected by GATS as it currently stands and by proposed changes. Suchactivities need to take place both domestically and internationally,through the OECD, UNESCO and APEC. The absence of detailed opendiscussions of such matters has led to significant confusion and anxietyin the educational community in many countries, and severely limited theprospects for progress on education services negotiations in the currentround. Conclusion Australia is clearly a leader in terms of successful export ofeducation, certainly in terms of the numbers of students enrolled, andthe amount of revenue generated. However this success has led manyoverseas observers to view Australian education institutions and theAustralian government as rapaciously ra��pa��cious?adj.1. Taking by force; plundering.2. Greedy; ravenous. See Synonyms at voracious.3. Subsisting on live prey. expansionist ex��pan��sion��ism?n.A nation's practice or policy of territorial or economic expansion.ex��pansion��ist adj. & n. , focused primarily onrevenue-raising rather than on traditional educational values andquality. This perception has not helped Australian negotiators in theirquest to prize open the education markets of Australia's majortrading partners through Doha Round negotiations of the WTO. Even thougha trade-driven approach to the internationalization of Australianeducation is clearly dominant, there are signs that Canberra is takingnote of the negative international perceptions of this approach and isseeking to broaden the international activities of Australianinstitutions away from a simple focus on the recruitment ofinternational fee-paying students. There is now more discussion of a'culture-driven' approach to the internationalization ofeducation, but we have heard many such calls over the years which havenot been backed by the resources or incentives to make them a reality(DEST, 2002). Australia's requests for increased market access in educationare also suffering from the reluctance the USA and EU, other majorexporting countries, to make the types of commitments to free trade ineducation that they are seeking from others. In any case, it seemslikely at present that developing countries will make very few offers onservices until the USA and EU make major concessions on agriculturaltrade, and on the availability of medicines to developing countries. Asthe negotiations progress, it appears less likely that Australianeducation exporters will receive a large boost from the WTO process.Sensing the nervousness of the international environment, the Australiangovernment is putting its efforts into longer-term and more diffuse diffuse/dif��fuse/1. (di-fus��) not definitely limited or localized.2. (di-fuz��) to pass through or to spread widely through a tissue or substance.dif��fuseadj. strategies to build confidence in the internationalization of education. Marjorie Peace Lenn (2002), director of the Washington--basedNational Council for International Trade in Education, believes that'more countries are recognizing that the key to their economicgrowth is greater openness to foreign-based public and privateinstitutions'. Although this was certainly the case in South EastAsia East AsiaA region of Asia coextensive with the Far East.East Asian adj. & n. in the 1990s, where a number of countries embraced foreigneducation providers who arrived alongside the western computer hardwarecompanies and textile manufacturers, only time will tell whether tradein education delivers the social and economic benefits that exportinggovernments have promised (McBurnie & Zignras, 2001). Clearly thecountries that have opened their borders during the past decade are notsufficiently confident of the long-term effects to bind these policiesin the legal framework provided by the GATS, and are understandablyreserving the right to be able to close access if it is in theirinterests to do so. Exporting countries like Australia are going to haveto earn the trust of their trading partners by producing tangiblebenefits over the long term. Notes (1) We were both interviewed as part of this study, and so knowabout its scope and purpose, but the report has not as yet been madepublic. (2) This study was conducted by Christopher Ziguras, Grant McBurnieand Leanne Reinke and is to be published in the near future. References Altbach, P. G. (2001). Higher education and the WTO:Globalization run amok Amok(ā`mŏk), in the Bible, post-Exilic Jewish family. . International Higher Education, 23, 2-4. Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation. (2001). 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(2003b). 2nd letter to industry from Mike Gallagher For other people named Michael Gallagher, see Michael Gallagher (disambiguation).Mike Gallagher (b. April 7 1960, Dayton, Ohio) is a popular conservative American radio talk show host. ,CEO (1) (Chief Executive Officer) The highest individual in command of an organization. Typically the president of the company, the CEO reports to the Chairman of the Board. AEI. Canberra: Australian Education International. Global Alliance for Transnational Education. (1999). Trade intransnational education services. Washington, DC: Author. IDP Education Australia. (2003). International students inAustralian universities: Semester 1, 2003 national overview. Sydney:Author. McBurnie, G. & Ziguras, C. (2001). The regulation oftransnational higher education in Southeast Asia Southeast Asia,region of Asia (1990 est. pop. 442,500,000), c.1,740,000 sq mi (4,506,600 sq km), bounded roughly by the Indian subcontinent on the west, China on the north, and the Pacific Ocean on the east. : Case studies of HongKong Hong Kong(hŏng kŏng), Mandarin Xianggang, special administrative region of China, formerly a British crown colony (2005 est. pop. 6,899,000), land area 422 sq mi (1,092 sq km), adjacent to Guangdong prov. , Malaysia and Australia. Higher Education, 42(1), 85-105. Ministerial Council on Employment, Education, Training and YouthAffairs. (2000). National protocols for higher education approvalprocesses. Canberra: Author. Mundy, K. & Ika, M. (in press). Hegemonic he��gem��o��ny?n. pl. he��gem��o��niesThe predominant influence, as of a state, region, or group, over another or others.[Greek h exceptionalism ex��cep��tion��al��ism?n.1. The condition of being exceptional or unique.2. 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The impact of the GATS on transnationaltertiary education: Comparing experiences of New Zealand, Australia,Singapore and Malaysia. Australian Educational Researcher. Grant McBurnie is Executive Officer for International Affairs,Monash University Facilities in are diverse and vary in services offered. Information on residential sevices at Monash University, including on-campus (MRS managed) and off-campus, can be found at [2] Student organisations , Victoria 3800. Christopher Zigura is Deputy Directorof the Globalism Institute, Department of Language and InternationalStudies, RMIT RMIT Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology , GPO Box 2476V, Melbourne, Victoria 3001. E-mail:Grant.McBurnie@adm.monash.edu.au Christopher.ziguras@rmit.edu.au