Reinforcing Alcohol Prevention (RAP) Program: a secondary school curriculum to combat underage drinking and impaired driving.

Reinforcing Alcohol Prevention (RAP) Program: a secondary school curriculum to combat underage drinking and impaired driving. ABSTRACT The Reinforcing Alcohol Prevention (RAP) Program is an alcoholprevention curriculum developed in partnership with secondary schools toserve their need for a brief evidence-based, and straightforward programthat aligned with state learning objectives. Program components includedan educational lesson, video, and interactive activities deliveredduring a 90-minute period. RAP Program modules were delivered to 1,7208th, 9th, and 10th graders at four schools during health courses.Dependent T-tests on a pre-post alcohol-related knowledge surveyadministered to a subset of classes (N = 668) indicated that students'knowledge and awareness of alcohol-related risks and consequencesincreased significantly from pretest pre��test?n.1. a. A preliminary test administered to determine a student's baseline knowledge or preparedness for an educational experience or course of study.b. A test taken for practice.2. (M = 84. 96, SD = 8. 87) toposttest post��test?n.A test given after a lesson or a period of instruction to determine what the students have learned. (M = 97.25, SD = 12.39). The program was well received andshowed statistically significant improvements in students'knowledge and awareness of alcohol's harmful effects. Keywords: Alcohol education program, schools, underage drinking,driving under the influence ********** Alcohol use by underage drinkers is a persistent public healthproblem in the United States United States,officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. , and alcohol is the most commonly used drugamong adolescents (Henry, Slater, & Oetting, 2005; Komro, 2002).Nearly 40% of children start drinking by the eighth grade, and 55% ofhigh school seniors report they have been drunk at least once in theirlifetime (Bandy bandy/ban��dy/ (band��e) bowed or bent in an outward curve. , 2008; L. D. Johnston, O'Malley, Bachman, &Schulenberg, 2009; National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism[NIAAA NIAAA National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (National Institutes of Health)NIAAA National Interscholastic Athletic Administrators AssociationNIAAA Northwestern Illinois Area Agency on Aging ], 2004/2005b; O'Malley, 1998). While adolescents drink lessfrequently than adults, they drink more per occasion, consuming onaverage four to five drinks (NIAAA, 2004/2005b). Substance abuse amongteens is related to academic and social problems, unintentionalinjuries, homicides and suicides, depression, conduct disorder Conduct DisorderDefinitionConduct disorder (CD) is a behavioral and emotional disorder of childhood and adolescence. Children with conduct disorder act inappropriately, infringe on the rights of others, and violate the behavioral expectations of , memoryloss, unplanned and unwanted sexual activity, alterations in braindevelopment, and future alcohol dependence (Bandy, 2008; Brown, 2008;Griffin, 2004; Hingson, 2003; NIAAA, 2004/2005a, 2004/2005b, 2006;Spear, 2002). Additionally, drinking early in life is also associatedwith an increased risk of developing an alcohol use disorder at sometime during the life span (NIAAA, 2004/2005b). Direct consequences of drinking include driving under the influenceof alcohol (DUI) and other risk-taking behaviors. Alcohol is a leadingcontributor to injury/death, and is the main cause of death for peopleunder age 21 (NIAAA, 2004/2005b). Despite well-needed increases inperception of risk and stricter laws and penalties, DUI andmisperceptions regarding alcohol-impaired driving continue among highschool and college students. Zero tolerance The policy of applying laws or penalties to even minor infringements of a code in order to reinforce its overall importance and enhance deterrence.Since the 1980s the phrase zero tolerance has signified a philosophy toward illegal conduct that favors strict imposition of laws (e.g., .02% BAC BACabbr.blood alcohol concentration limitsfor under age 21) in the United States are associated with a 20%reduction in single vehicle nighttime crashes among drivers age 15 to 20years (DeJong & Hingson, 1998). Yet, alcohol-involved crashes remaina leading cause of morbidity and mortality Morbidity and Mortality can refer to: Morbidity & Mortality, a term used in medicine Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, a medical publication See alsoMorbidity, a medical term Mortality, a medical term . Numerous education programshave been developed to raise awareness and combat DUI and otheralcohol-related risks. This paper details the development andapplication of one program in a locality that suffered from poorutilization of existing model programs. Existing School-based Programs Preventing the emergence of alcohol-related risk-taking behaviorsand reducing the severity of existing behaviors are essential during theeighth through tenth grades when students are receiving theirdriver's licenses and confronting extreme levels of peer pressure(O'Malley, 1998). Numerous school-based programs have emerged overthe years to combat underage drinking and driving. Recent evidence hashighlighted a number of factors that strengthen the efficacy ofschool-based substance abuse prevention/education programs (e.g., Komro,2002; Tobler, 1992; Tobler et al., 2000; Tobler & Stratton, 1997).It is advised that school-based curricula should (a) be based inbehavioral theory; (b) focus on development of resistance skills; (c)emphasize normative education; (d) use developmentally appropriateinformation; (e) incorporate broad-based skills training; (f) useinteractive teaching techniques; (f) include multiple sessions overmultiple years; (g) provide teacher training and support; (h)incorporate family and community involvement; and (i) be culturallysensitive (Komro, 2002). Interactive curricula such as role-playing,discussions, and small-group activities are more effective thannoninteractive curricula at preventing alcohol, tobacco, and other druguse among youth (Komro, 2002; Tobler et al., 2000; Tobler &Stratton, 1997). Unfortunately, school-based efforts are not always developed inaccordance with these guidelines; and even when they are, they are notalways user-friendly for the schools. For instance, Students AgainstDestructive Decisions (SADD SADD Students Against Destructive Decisions (formerly Students Against Drunk Driving)SADD Students Against Drunk Driving (now Students Against Destructive Decisions)SADD Sexual Attention Deficit Disorder ) is popular in high schools, but there islittle evidence of effectiveness beyond increased awareness (Klitzner,Gruenewald, Bamberger, & Rossiter, 1994). Other programs do haveempirical support as model programs but are underutilized by schools.Underutilization is due in large part to the increasing demand onschools to focus their time and efforts on the "basics" pushedby education benchmarks (Kaftarian, 2004; Thaker, 2008). For instance,Substance Abuse and Mental Health and Human Services Noun 1. Health and Human Services - the United States federal department that administers all federal programs dealing with health and welfare; created in 1979Department of Health and Human Services, HHS (SAMHSA SAMHSA Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration ) details onits website many model programs targeting secondary school students(e.g., Class Action, Project Towards no Drug Abuse) that are effectiveat reducing substance abuse (SAMHSA, 2006b). Although these SAMHSA modelprograms are effective, most are taught over multiple weeks and as suchare not conducive to already crammed school schedules. Further, a commondeficiency of multi-week prevention programs is the failure to strictlyimplement interventions, often because program providers (e.g.,teachers, students) shorten or otherwise change the intervention to meetschool needs (Botvin, 1990; Cahill, 2007; Ennett, 2003; Hallfors, 2002;Kaftarian, 2004; McBride, 2005; Ringwalt, 2003; Thaker, 2008). The Reinforcing Alcohol Prevention (RAP) Program was created forthe needs of a southeastern Virginia locality. The program uses atwo-pronged approach to intervene regarding impaired driving amongteens: (a) court-based programming, and (b) school-based programming.This paper focuses on the development and evaluation of the school-basedcomponent, and outlines the interim steps and results of the process ofworking with the schools to create an alcohol prevention curriculum thatis not only evidence-based, but serves the schools' practicalneeds. The Reinforcing Alcohol Prevention (RAP) Program The RAP Program was developed in accordance with evidence-basedguidelines for effective school-based programming, as well as for theneeds and desires of the local school system to maximize impact andfeasibility in the schools. Social Cognitive Theory Social Cognitive Theory utilized both in Psychology and Communications posits that portions of an individual's knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences. (SCT Sacrococcygeal teratoma (SCT)A tumor occurring at the base of the fetus's tailbone.Mentioned in: Prenatal Surgery ) provided theoverarching o��ver��arch��ing?adj.1. Forming an arch overhead or above: overarching branches.2. Extending over or throughout: "I am not sure whether the missing ingredient . . . theory and delineated de��lin��e��ate?tr.v. de��lin��e��at��ed, de��lin��e��at��ing, de��lin��e��ates1. To draw or trace the outline of; sketch out.2. To represent pictorially; depict.3. the key constructs that shapedintervention conceptualization con��cep��tu��al��ize?v. con��cep��tu��al��ized, con��cep��tu��al��iz��ing, con��cep��tu��al��iz��esv.tr.To form a concept or concepts of, and especially to interpret in a conceptual way: . SCT combines stimulus response andcognitive theories and suggests that behavior is the result ofreciprocal interactions among behavioral, personal (e.g., cognitive),and environmental factors (Bandura ban`dur´an. 1. A traditional Ukrainian stringed musical instrument shaped like a lute, having many strings. , 1977, 1986, 2004). For example,social disinhibition dis��in��hi��bi��tionn.1. A loss of inhibition, as through the influence of drugs or alcohol.2. A temporary loss of an inhibition caused by an unrelated stimulus, such as a loud noise. (personal factor) in addition to peer pressure(environmental factor) can result in binge drinking binge drinkingAn early phase of chronic alcoholism, characterized by episodic 'flirtation' with the bottle by binges of drinking to the point of stupor, followed by periods of abstinence; BD is accompanied by alcoholic ketoacidosis–accelerated lipolysis and (behavioral factor),which is a main contributor to driving under the influence of alcohol.When developing the RAP Program and its curricula, the research teamconcentrated on translating personal, behavioral, and environmentalfactors into tangible intervention goals. For example, to equip teenswith the proper refusal skills Refusal skills are a set of skills designed to help children avoid participating in high-risk behaviors. Programs designed to discourage drug use, violence, and/or sexual activity frequently include refusal skills in their curriculums to help students resist peer pressure while and bolster self-efficacy, the RAPProgram modeled and provided practice of skills for refusing an offer ofan alcoholic product. Further, erroneous normative beliefs about thehigh number and frequency of peers drinking alcohol were challenged byproviding teens with accurate information about peer rates of drinking. The RAP Program addresses teens' alcohol knowledge andperceptions and teaches awareness of alcohol's harmful effectsthrough packaged curricula, presentations, interactive learningactivities, and threat-appeal tactics employing crash photos andpersonal testimonials. The overall goal of the project was to produce abrief, evidence-based, straightforward program that would be used by theschool system. The program was developed in partnership with schoolpersonnel and judicial partners who gave ongoing input regardingrelevance and ease of use by teachers within the classrooms. Theefficacy of the curriculum was evaluated via pretest/posttest design atfour large representative schools in two cities in southeasternVirginia. Due to funding constraints and the fact that the focus of thisproject was on curriculum development, control schools were not includedin this evaluation. It was hypothesized that students who received theRAP Program would report greater knowledge and awareness ofalcohol-related risks and consequences compared to their pre-programlevels. METHOD Development of the RAP Program Because the success of school-based programs depends upon a strongalliance among the scientists creating the curriculum, school personnel,and key stakeholders StakeholdersAll parties that have an interest, financial or otherwise, in a firm-stockholders, creditors, bondholders, employees, customers, management, the community, and the government. in the community, an advisory board was convened toassist with development and implementation of the RAP Program. Membersof the advisory board included Juvenile and Domestic Relations Court domestic relations courtn.In certain U.S. states, a court with jurisdiction over family disputes, especially those involving the custody, support, and welfare of children.Noun 1. judges, the local Department of Motor Vehicles In the United States of America, Department of Motor Vehicles (or DMV) is a commonly used name of the government agency of a U.S. state which administers the registration of automobiles (e.g., by issuing license plates), and/or the licensing of drivers (e.g. Community Traffic SafetyProgram Manager, school personnel, law enforcement personnel, and thebehavioral/social science researchers who were leading the developmentof the curriculum. The advisory board worked closely with theresearchers creating the curriculum to propose intervention ideas,strategize strat��e��gize?v. strat��e��gized, strat��e��giz��ing, strat��e��giz��esv.tr.To plan a strategy for (a business or financial venture, for example).v.intr. and prioritize pri��or��i��tize?v. pri��or��i��tized, pri��or��i��tiz��ing, pri��or��i��tiz��es Usage Problemv.tr.To arrange or deal with in order of importance.v.intr. goals, create RAP curricula and components,network with partnering agencies, develop a school-friendly evaluationinstrument, and plan for implementation of the RAP Program. While theresearch staff in charge of curriculum development performed much of theday-to-day work necessary to bring the program to fruition, advisoryboard members provided valuable knowledge and experience regarding theneeds and constraints of working with area schools and teens. Refinement according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. focus groups. Two focus groups of students(N = 14) were held at a local school with parent permission and studentconsent. Students were shown all RAP components and asked to providefeedback both freely and according to open-ended questions in themoderator's guide. Focus groups were facilitated by tworesearchers, one who led discussion and one who served as the recorder.Additionally, the focus groups were audio-recorded to ensure accuracy ofnotes. Overall, the RAP Program was well received by the student focusgroups as they reported liking the presentations and videos. Studentsgave constructive feedback regarding which slides in the presentationwere impactful versus boring and gave helpful suggestions for theoverall program. Both focus groups agreed with the presumption thathands-on activities would be better received than lecture style andsuggested revising our educational component to be more of a discussion.The focus groups thought the presentation was straightforward and thatthe information they obtained was helpful and would be well received bytheir peers. Importantly, they thought the RAP Program was needed, asthey did not believe they received adequate alcohol education in theschool curricula with the exception of short-lived prom seasonactivities. The participants reported that RAP activities weremeaningful and served as good techniques for testing the teenagers'knowledge. The videos and crash photo presentation (see Materialssection) were thought to be very powerful. They thought these types ofphotos should be included in all grades' modules. Based on feedbackfrom focus groups, program components were revised as appropriate inpreparation for implementation. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTINGS Due to the pilot/exploratory nature of the project and our need tobe considerate con��sid��er��ate?adj.1. Having or marked by regard for the needs or feelings of others. See Synonyms at thoughtful.2. Characterized by careful thought; deliberate. of the school district's needs, non-randomassignment was used to determine which schools would be administered theRAP Program. With assistance of the advisory board, the research teamworked with school administrators to obtain permission to implement theRAP Program in selected schools in the two cities. The schools chosenfor the study were ethnically and socio-economically diverse andgenerally representative of the two school districts. At the schools inCity 1, 53% of students were Caucasian, 36% were African American African AmericanMulticulture A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa.See Race. , and6% were of other ethnicity. Further, 19% of students received free orreduced lunch. As for the schools in City 2, 56% were Caucasian, 30%were African American, and 13% were of other ethnicity. Twenty-sixpercent of students received free or reduced lunch. The study enrolledeighth, ninth, and tenth grade Tenth grade is a year of education in many nations. United StatesThe tenth grade is the tenth school year after kindergarten and is called Grade 10 in some regions. Students are usually 15–16 years old. students (age 13-16 years) from 55 middleschool and high school classrooms. School-based RAP components weredelivered to approximately 1,720 students in small and large groupsettings during Health and Physical Education classes. Pre-postknowledge surveys were administered to a subset (N = 668) of classes. MATERIALS The research team worked with school personnel and administrationto develop modules tailored to district needs. Working with schoolpersonnel increased teacher buy-in and helped ensure that components metstate standards of learning objectives and fit easily within blockscheduling Block scheduling is a type of academic scheduling in which each student has fewer classes per day for a longer period of time. This is intended to result in more time for teaching due to less time wasted due to class switching and preparation. . The advisory board and research team developed a uniquemodule for each grade level. While the key information conveyed wassimilar across grade levels, it was important to develop distinctlessons and activities for each progressive grade level to avoidrepetition. The RAP curricula are one-session 90-min modules for each ofeighth, ninth, and tenth grades. In order to maintain student interestand avoid the "lecture" approach, each module was 90 minseparated into 3-4 segments. Specifically, each RAP curricula moduleincludes (a) a student education component (15-20 min MicrosoftPowerPoint presentation), (b) a short 5-min video of a crash victim orconvicted at-fault driver who discusses the personal impact thatalcohol-impaired driving has had on his or her life, and (c) one or twointeractive activities that educate students through hands-on learningand reinforce the alcohol prevention message. Table 1 describes thevarious intervention goals (per SCT) that were infused throughout theRAP Program. Eighth grade module. A short 10-minute PowerPoint presentation wasdeveloped for delivery to eighth grade classes, which focused on thestate's laws and penalties, and consequences associated with risksfor underage alcohol consumption and driving under the influence ofalcohol. These slides detail an estimate of the amount of money teenswill spend (e.g. fines, court costs court costsn. fees for expenses that the courts pass on to attorneys, who then pass them on to their clients or, in some kinds of cases, to the losing party. , alcohol education courses,insurance), how long they will lose their driver's license (6months to 1 year), and the burden of how much time they will spend inalcohol classes, community service, and in court. Everyday factorsrelated to having the DUI on their permanent record, and how this mightaffect their college scholarships and job applications are alsodiscussed. Teens are then exposed to an abbreviated (7-minute) version of theCentury Council's Brandon Tells his Story video, which details theaftermath of a teen who crashed his car while driving impaired, with afollow-up slide of "How do you avoid ending up like the guy in thevideo?" This is a discussion slide that focuses on planning aheadand explores alternatives to drunk driving such as using a designateddriver designated driverPublic health A person at a social function who volunteers, or is 'volunteered' to chauffeur inebriated revellers chez elles at festivity's end. Cf Squash it. , calling a taxi cab, calling a sober driver, or staying at yourlocation. Lastly, the eighth grade module includes a mock trial A simulated trial-level proceeding conducted by students to understand trial rules and processes. Usually tried before a mock jury, these proceedings are different from Moot Court proceedings, which simulate appellate arguments. whichconstitutes the bulk of the RAP Program presentation in the classroom.This mock trial involves a drunken driving incident including afatality fa��tal��i��tyn.1. A death resulting from an accident or disaster.2. One that is killed as a result of such an occurrence. . Teachers assign students in advance to act out the 12 roles.The remainder of the class acts as the jury and decides the fate of thedefendant. At the end of this exercise students gain an appreciation andunderstanding of (a) the responsibilities of law enforcement personnel,(b) the difficulties in defending a drinking driver, (c) the costs andpenalties associated with DUI, (d) factual information aboutalcohol-related hazards (via "expert testimony Testimony about a scientific, technical, or professional issue given by a person qualified to testify because of familiarity with the subject or special training in the field. ") and (e) theprocess used by a jury to decide the outcome of a trial. Ninth grade module. Similar to the eighth grade module, a 15-minPowerPoint presentation was developed that utilizes educational slidesas well as crash photo slides to maintain ninth grade students'interest. The educational slides inform teens about general alcoholfacts, risks, and consequences. The crash photo slides present multiplephotos and details (e.g., BAC, speed, belt use, location, victim andat-fault driver outcomes, and legal consequences) of local-area alcohol-and speed-related crashes obtained from the local police department.Local crashes were used to maximize students' feelings of personalconnection to the situation. The PowerPoint presentation is accompanied by a local PoliceDepartment's video-taped interview with a young adult serving 10years in jail for killing two local individuals while driving drunk.This 7-min video is followed by a discussion slide which highlights hismistakes (all too common) and the importance of using a designateddriver. Lastly, the ninth grade module also utilizes the Fatal Visiongoggles goggles,n the protective eyewear worn by dental personnel and patients during dental procedures.gogglessee periocular leukotrichia. for an activity. The Fatal Vision Goggles simulate theperception of being impaired by alcohol. Teens attempt various fieldsobriety tests while wearing the fatal vision goggles including (a)balancing on one leg, (b) walking a straight line heel to toe, and (c)hand-eye coordination tests. Tenth grade module. A 20-min educational PowerPoint presentationwas developed for tenth graders. The presentation reviewsalcohol-related crash facts and statistics, then defines and estimatesblood alcohol content Blood alcohol content (BAC) or blood alcohol concentration is the concentration of alcohol in blood. It is usually measured as mass per volume. For example, a BAC of 0.02% means 0.02 grams of alcohol per 100 grams of individual's blood, or 0. (BAC) level based on body size, gender, and numberof drinks. The BAC section of the presentation corrects themisperception mis��per��ceive?tr.v. mis��per��ceived, mis��per��ceiv��ing, mis��per��ceivesTo perceive incorrectly; misunderstand.mis that an individual can drive safely if he or she drinksone alcoholic beverage per hour. Students are also taught how differentparts of their bodies and motor skills are affected at different BAClevels. The final slides review the risks and penalties of underagedrinking and impaired driving, content that is similar to the materialfrom the eighth grade module. Lastly, students are taught different waysto say no and resist peer pressure. Students who view this presentationview a brief 5-7 min video such as Brandon Tells His Story or theinterview with the incarcerated incarcerated/in��car��cer��at��ed/ (in-kahr��ser-at?ed) imprisoned; constricted; subjected to incarceration. in��car��cer��at��edadj.Confined or trapped, as a hernia. drunk driver. Interactive activities for this module include the Fatal Visiongoggles and Toxic Jeopardy, which is similar to the game show Jeopardy.Question categories include (a) Alcohol Autopsy autopsy:see post-mortem examination. autopsyor necropsy or postmortemDissection and examination of a dead body to determine cause of death and learn about disease processes in ways that are not possible with the living. , which examines howalcohol affects different body organs; (b) Liquid Lies, which are factor myth questions; (c) Cold Hard Truth, which reviews statistics relatedto alcohol; (d) Legal Lingo, which inquires about the legal penaltiesfor impaired driving and underage drinking, and; (e) Know yourNo's, which reviews various ways to say "no" to peerpressure. MEASURE To assist in gauging immediate changes in knowledge following theRAP Program, a program-specific pre-post alcohol-related knowledgequestionnaire was developed. This questionnaire specifically testedparticipants' knowledge on materials taught in the RAP Program. Dueto time and logistical/political constraints within schools, theresearch team was not permitted to ask students about sell-reporteddrinking and other high-risk behaviors. Therefore, the research teamdeveloped a one-page, 25-item questionnaire which asked program specificquestions (e.g., Alcohol is a stimulant stimulant,any substance that causes an increase in activity in various parts of the nervous system or directly increases muscle activity. Cerebral, or psychic, stimulants act on the central nervous system and provide a temporary sense of alertness and well-being as ; Alcohol kills more than allother illegal drugs combined) using a Likert-type response format(ranging from 1 = Strongly Disagree to 5 = Strongly Agree). In addition,four demographic questions were included to collect basic informationsuch as gender, race, age, and year in school. This anonymousquestionnaire was administered immediately before and after RAP Programpresentations to all students with parental consent and with verbalstudent assent An intentional approval of known facts that are offered by another for acceptance; agreement; consent.Express assent is manifest confirmation of a position for approval. . Internal consistency In statistics and research, internal consistency is a measure based on the correlations between different items on the same test (or the same subscale on a larger test). It measures whether several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce similar scores. reliability ([alpha]) was .66 atpretest and .82 at posttest. In all phases of this program, the researchteam provided protection of human subjects and submitted all protocolsinvolving human subjects to the Institutional Review Board. PROCEDURE Working closely with schools, the research staff and advisoryboards scheduled RAP presentations in 55 classrooms of fourparticipating schools. The number of presentations was adequate to reachthe entire eighth, ninth, and tenth grade student body at participatingschools in small groups (Student N = 1720). Core programming wasdistinct for each grade level and included informational presentations,videos, and interactive learning activities as discussed above in thevarious module descriptions. Presentations filled approximately 90minutes of class time, because a longer program presented schedulingdifficulty for schools. Administration of an immediate pre-postevaluation survey coincided with a subset of the presentations (Survey N= 668). Data collected for this program were entered using a Teleformscanning machine for fast processing of large numbers of surveys intothe SPSS A statistical package from SPSS, Inc., Chicago (www.spss.com) that runs on PCs, most mainframes and minis and is used extensively in marketing research. It provides over 50 statistical processes, including regression analysis, correlation and analysis of variance. system database. Validity checks for data accuracy wereperformed. Data were analyzed using SPSS (release 13.0; SPSS Inc.,Chicago, IL). Descriptive statistics descriptive statisticssee statistics. were run first to verify that noassumptions were violated and to address outliers or missing data.Dependent t-tests were performed to measure any change inalcohol-related knowledge between the pre- and posttests. RESULTS The RAP Program was delivered in 55 middle school and high schoolclassrooms (N = 1,720). Table 2 presents the demographic makeup of theRAP participants who completed the prepost tests (N = 668). Dependentt-tests were performed on students' responses to the pre-posttests. Results indicated test scores improved significantly across time:t(667) = -21.32, p < .001, [[eta].sup.2] = 0.41. Specifically,students' knowledge and awareness of alcohol risks increasedsignificantly from the pretest (M = 84.96, SD = 8.87) to posttest (M=97.25, SD = 12.39). Additional follow-up dependent t-tests (usingBonferroni's method for correcting for Alpha inflation) on the 25individual questions revealed that students were misinformed aboutalcohol and many related risks prior to the RAP Program but not afterthe program. For instance, many teens mistakenly believed prior to theprogram that (a) alcohol is a stimulant; (b) license revocation The recall of some power or authority that has been granted.Revocation by the act of a party is intentional and voluntary, such as when a person cancels a Power of Attorney that he has given or a will that he has written. lawsonly applied to drinking and driving, not underage drinking; (c) 5ounces of wine did not contain the same amount of alcohol as 12 ouncesof beer; (d) the majority of youth (ages 12-17) drink alcohol more thanonce a month; (e) drinking large amounts of alcohol in a short period oftime could not lead to death; and (f) two beers in an hour could notimpair their visual judgment. Students also had great misconceptionsregarding laws and penalties related to underage alcohol use and drivingunder the influence. They had false impressions regarding fines,incarceration Confinement in a jail or prison; imprisonment.Police officers and other law enforcement officers are authorized by federal, state, and local lawmakers to arrest and confine persons suspected of crimes. The judicial system is authorized to confine persons convicted of crimes. time, community service, license revocations, and manywere not aware of the zero-tolerance law. These misperceptions declinedsignificantly after the RAP Program. Table 3 presents mean pre-postdifferences in student's alcohol-related knowledge for all surveyquestions. Further exploratory analyses were conducted to measure anydifferences among gender, ethnicity, and grade levels of students whoparticipated in the RAP Program. Independent t-tests indicated nosignificant differences between gender and the overall pretest [t(638) =-1.36, ns] or posttest [t(638) = .06, ns] scores. In addition, a MixedAnalysis of Variance (ANOVA anovasee analysis of variance.ANOVAAnalysis of variance, see there ) was conducted to examine ethnicitydifferences for overall pre-post test scores. Results from this analysiswere not significant [Pretest F(2, 638) = 2.22, ns; Posttest F(2, 638) =2.87, ns]. A Mixed ANOVA conducted for grade level (i.e., eighth, ninth, andtenth) and overall pre-post test scores was significant [pretest F(2,665) = 15.51, p < .001 and posttest F(2, 665) = 22.47, p < .001],but homogeneity HomogeneityThe degree to which items are similar. of variance was violated; p < .005 for pretest andposttest. Therefore, Friedman's non-parametric test was run, whichindicated significant differences between student's grade level andpre-post test scores [Pretest [X.sup.2](2) = 14.06, p < .001;Posttest [X.sup.2](2) = 6.88, p = .03]. Since there was an overalldifference among the groups, pairwise comparisons were conducted toidentify which groups differed from each other. Pairwise Friedman'stests revealed eighth graders (M= 82.45, SD = 9.53) scored significantlylower than ninth (M = 86.55, SD = 8.05) and tenth graders (M = 87.87, SD= 8.69) at pretest [S.xup.2](1) = 16.67, p < .001. However, atposttest [X.sup.2](1) = 34.25, p < .001, eighth graders (M= 92.65, SD= 12.69) again scored significantly lower than the ninth graders (M =100.96, SD = 11.98), but there were no significant differences betweenthe eighth and tenth graders [X.sup.2] (1 ) = 2.25, ns. In addition,there were no significant differences between ninth graders and tenthgraders on the pretest [X.sup.2] (1) = 0.61, ns, and posttest [X.sup.2](1) = 0.12, ns. DISCUSSION The overall goal of this project was to produce a brief,evidence-based, straightforward alcohol prevention curriculum that wouldbe used by the school system. The main hypothesis was supported in thatteens who received the RAP Program curriculum increased their knowledgeand awareness of alcohol-related risks and consequences. The RAP Programwas able to increase overall alcohol knowledge, correct misperceptionsof alcohol, and raise awareness of alcohol-related risks andconsequences upon program completion. The research team succeeded increating a user-friendly program that schools utilized, and the programwas well received by both students and teachers in pilot schools. Therewere no significant differences among ethnicity and gender on thestudents' knowledge; thus, the program has preliminary evidencethat it is generalizable gen��er��al��ize?v. gen��er��al��ized, gen��er��al��iz��ing, gen��er��al��iz��esv.tr.1. a. To reduce to a general form, class, or law.b. To render indefinite or unspecific.2. across genders and a variety of ethnic groups. The RAP Program was successful in educating teens about alcohollaws and penalties in order to increase awareness of the consequences ofconsuming alcohol. For instance, teens who participated in the RAPProgram did not know a zero-tolerance law existed before the program wasimplemented. However, teens were significantly more aware of this law bythe end of the program. Awareness and knowledge of alcohol laws areimportant in order for laws to have any effect on the population (Berger& Marelich, 1997; Ferguson & Williams, 2002). Comparable to the findings of Royal (2000), the RAP pretestindicated that teens had misperceptions regarding how many drinks teensmust consume before alcohol begins to impair their driving ability.Following the RAP Program, teen participants were aware that they couldnot tolerate one drink per hour without impairment and violatingzero-tolerance driving limits. Similar to Johnson and colleagues'findings (L. Johnston, O'Malley, & Bachman, 2003), results fromthe RAP Pretest indicated that teens did not perceive great risk inheavy episodic episodicsporadic; occurring in episodes. e. falling a paroxymal disorder described in Cavalier King Charles spaniels in which affected dogs, starting at an early age, experience episodes of extensor rigidity, possibly brought on by stress. e. binge drinking. Teens erroneously believed, prior to theprogram, that drinking a large amount of alcohol in a short period oftime could not result in respiratory paralysis and death. LIMITATIONS Self-reported data. This preliminary study does not provideevidence for effectiveness beyond self-reported increases in knowledge.Survey questions examining use/prevalence of alcohol and related riskswere declined by the school district. The school administrators thoughtthat querying teens about their drinking behaviors was a sensitivesubject and an unnecessary use of class time. Crash and driving incidentreports were not a viable alternative because most had not receivedlicenses at the time of the program. Group-based survey completion. Due to group-based administration ofsurveys, it is possible a few students did not read survey questionscarefully. Attrition was also an issue because more students chose tocomplete pretests (N = 781) than the posttests (N = 668). To rectify rec��ti��fyv.1. To set right; correct.2. To refine or purify, especially by distillation. this discrepancy, SPSS automatically adjusts to make sample sizes equal,which resulted in discarding extra pretests, making the final samplesize 668. One-group design. Due to funding constraints and the fact that thefocus of this project was on curriculum development, control schoolswere not included in this evaluation. Therefore, the lack of acomparison group limits the internal validity Internal validity is a form of experimental validity [1]. An experiment is said to possess internal validity if it properly demonstrates a causal relation between two variables [2] [3]. of the study. Additionalresearch is needed to determine if the pre-post differences are indeeddue to the program. Non-random selection. Schools and classrooms were not chosenrandomly; rather, interested schools and personnel in SoutheasternVirginia were invited to participate. Thus, the results from this studymay not be generalizable to other schools and participants in otherareas of the United States. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS The RAP research team worked with school partners to createinnovative curriculum modules, presentations, interactive learningactivities, and components employing crash photos and personaltestimonials. It is clear that the program has had a significant andbeneficial impact on students' alcohol-related knowledge andperceptions, including the dangers of drinking and driving. Further, theprogram has been well-received by teachers, and students as evidenced byanecdotal, focus group, and objective survey data. Since itsdevelopment, the program has continued to be used within schools in thestudy area, and has now been packaged on CD/DVD and distributedthroughout the state to other schools. As mentioned previously, the program was piloted via a one-groupdesign and would benefit from further evaluation that includes a controlgroup. Further, surveys of self-reported alcohol use, impaired driving,and riding with an intoxicated in��tox��i��cate?v. in��tox��i��cat��ed, in��tox��i��cat��ing, in��tox��i��catesv.tr.1. To stupefy or excite by the action of a chemical substance such as alcohol.2. driver are all essential data for properanalysis of the impact of this program. Although teens targeted by this program have yet to receive theirlicenses, it would be ideal to follow-up participants to comparealcohol-related crashes and violations. AUTHOR NOTE Cynthia Shier shi��er?adj.A comparative of shy1. Sabo is now with the Department of Biostatistics biostatistics/bio��sta��tis��tics/ (-stah-tis��tiks) biometry. bi��o��sta��tis��ticsn.The science of statistics applied to the analysis of biological or medical data. atVirginia Commonwealth University Formed by a merger between the Richmond Professional Institute and the Medical College of Virginia in 1968, VCU has a medical school that is home to the nation's oldest organ transplant program. , Richmond, Virginia Richmond IPA: [ɹɯʒmɐnɖ]is the capital of the Commonwealth of Virginia, in the United States. . This study was supported by grants from the United StatesDepartment of Transportation The United States Department of Transportation (DOT) is a federal Cabinet department of the United States government concerned with transportation. It was established by an act of Congress on October 15, 1966 and began operation on April 1, 1967. and the Virginia Department of MotorVehicles (Grants 154AL-05-51280; J8-06-52181; 154AL-2007-57022-2494).The contents are solely the responsibility of the authors and do notnecessarily represent the official views of the U.S. Department ofTransportation or the Virginia Department of Motor Vehicles. We greatlyacknowledge the contributions from our partnering cities, includingpublic school personnel, Juvenile and Domestic Relations courtpersonnel, Department of Motor Vehicles, and the police departments. Wewould like to especially thank Judy Best, Honorable Randell Blow,Honorable Deborah Bryan, Craig England, Linda Jacocks, Steve Knott, JohnLourenco, Mary Ann Rayment, Tommy Rhodes, Scott Witchtendahl, HonorableLarry Willis Lawrence Elliott Willis (born December 20 1940 in New York, NY) is an American jazz pianist and composer. He has performed in a wide range of styles, including jazz fusion and rock. , and our student volunteers for their assesstance. Please address all correspondence to Kelli England Will, EasternVirginia Medical School Coordinates: Eastern Virginia Medical School, in Norfolk, Virginia is a public medical school. , Williams Hall Department of Pediatrics, 855West Brambleton Avenue, Norfolk, Virginia Norfolk is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia, in the United States of America. With a population of 234,403 as of the 2000 census, Norfolk is Virginia's second-largest incorporated city. 23510-1001; Phone: (757)668-6449; Fax: (757) 668-6475; Email: willke@evms.edu. REFERENCES Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Upper Saddle River Saddle River may refer to: Saddle River, New Jersey, a borough in Bergen County, New Jersey Saddle River (New Jersey), a tributary of the Passaic River in New Jersey , NJ:Prentice Hall Prentice Hall is a leading educational publisher. It is an imprint of Pearson Education, Inc., based in Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA. Prentice Hall publishes print and digital content for the 6-12 and higher education market. HistoryIn 1913, law professor Dr. . Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundation of Thought and Action: ASocial Cognitive Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Bandura, A. (2004). Health promotion by social cognitive meansHealth Education & Behavior, 31, 143-164. Bandy, T., & Moore, K. A. (2008). What works for preventing andstopping substance use in adolescents: Lessons from experimentalevaluations of programs and interventions., Child Trends Fact Sheet (pp.Accessed at www.childtrends.org). Berger, D. E., & Marelich, W. D. (1997). Legal and socialcontrol of alcohol- impaired driving in california. Journal of Studieson Alcohol, 58, 518-523. Botvin, G. J., Baker, E., Dusenbury, L, Tortu, S., & Botvin, E.M. (1990). 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Ennett, S. T., Ringwalt, C. L., Thorne, J., Rohrback, L. A.,Vincus, A., Simons-Rudolph, A., & Jones, S. (2003). A comparison ofcurrent practice in school-based substance use prevention programs withmeta-analysis findings. Prevention Science, 4(1), 1-14. Ferguson, S. A., & Williams, A. F. (2002). Awareness of zerotolerance laws in three states. Journal of Safety Research, 33, 293-299. Griffin, K. W., Botvin, G. J., & Nichols, T. R. (2004).Long-term follow-up effects of a school-based drug abuse preventionprogram on adolescent risky driving. Prevention Science, 5(3), 207-212. Hallfors, D., & Godette, D. (2002). Will the 'principlesof effectiveness' improve prevention practice? Early findings froma diffusion study. Health Education Research, 17(4), 461-470. Henry, K. L., Slater, M. D., & Oetting, E. R. (2005). Alcoholuse in early adolescence: the effect of changes in risk taking,perceived harm and friends' alcohol use. Journal of the Study ofAlcohol, 66, 275-283. Hingson, R., & Winter, M. (2003). Epidemiology and consequencesof drinking and driving. Alcohol Research & Health, 27(1), 63-78. Johnston, L., O'Malley, P., & Bachman, J. (2003).Monitoring the Future Monitoring the Future is an annual survey given to 50,000 8th, 10th and 12th graders in the United States to determine drug use trends and patterns. The survey started in 1975, with 12th graders. It was expanded in 1991 to include 8th and 10th graders as well. national results on adolescent drug use: Overviewand key findings, 2002 (No. 03-5374). Bethesda, MD: National Instituteon Drug Abuse. Johnston, L. D., O'Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., &Schulenberg, J. E. (2009). Monitoring the Future national results onadolescent drug use: Overview of key findings, 2008 (NIH "Not invented here." See digispeak. NIH - The United States National Institutes of Health. Publication No.09-7401). Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse. Kaftarian, S., Robertson, E., Compton, W., Davis, B. W., &Volkow, N. (2004). Blending prevention research and practice in schools:Critical issues and suggestions. Prevention Science, 5(1), 1-3. Klitzner, M., Gruenewald, P. J., Bamberger, E., & Rossiter, C.(1994). A quasi-experimental evaluation of Students Against DrivingDrunk. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse. 20, 57-74. Komro, K. A., & Toomey, T. L. (2002). Strategies to preventunderage drinking. Alcohol Research & Health, 26(1), 5-14. McBride, N. (2005). The evidence base for school drug educationinterventions. In T. Stockwell, Gruenewald, P. J., Toumbourou, J. W.,& Loxley, W. (Ed.), Preventing harmful substance use: The evidencebase for policy and practice. (pp. 101-112). New York New York, state, United StatesNew York,Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of : Jonh Wiley &Sons, Ltd. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. (2004/2005a).The effects of alcohol on physiological processes and biologicaldevelopment. Alcohol Research & Health, 28(3), 125-131. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. (2004/2005b).The scope of the problem. Alcohol Research & Health, 28(3), 111-120. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. (2006). Make adifference: Talk to your child about alcohol. (Vol. Publication #06-4314). Rockville, MD: National Institutes of Health. O'Malley, P. M., Johnston, L. D., & Bachman, J. G. (1998).Alcohol use among adolescents. Alcohol Research & Health, 22(2),85-94. Ringwalt, C. L., Ennett, S., Johnson, R., Rohrbach, L. A.,Simons-Rudolph, A. Vincus, A., & Thorne, J. (2003). Factorsassociated with fidelity to substance use prevention curriculum guidesin the nation's middle schools. Health Education and Behavior, 30,375-391. Royal, D. (2000). Racial and ethnic group comparisons."National surveys of drinking and driving. Attitudes and Behavior: 1993,1995, and 1997. Volume 1: Findings; Volume 2: Methods. Washington, DC:Department of Traffic Safety, National Highway Traffic SafetyAdministration. Spear, L. (2002). Adolescent brain and the college drinker:Biological basis of propensity to use and misuse alcohol. Journal of theStud), of Alcohol(14), 71-81. Substance Abuse and Mental Health and Human Services. (2006a).Class Action. from http://modelprograms.samhsa.gov/pdfs/Details/ClassAction.pdf Substance Abuse and Mental Health and Human Services. (2006b).Model Programs. Substance Abuse and Mental Health and Human Services. (2006c).Project Toward No Drug Abuse. Thaker, S., Steckler, A. Sanchez, V., Khatapoush, S., Rose, J.,& Hallfors, D. D. (2008). Program characteristics and organizationalfactors affecting the implementation of a school-based indicatedprevention program. Health Education Research, 23(2), 238-248. Tobler, N. S. (1992). Drug prevention programs can work: Researchfindings. Journal of Addictive Diseases, 11(3), 1-28. Tobler, N. S., Roona, M. R., Ochshorn, P., Marshall, D. G., Streke,A. V., & Stackpole, K. M. (2000). School-based adolescent drugprevention programs: 1998 meta-analysis. The Journal of PrimaryPrevention, 20(4), 275-336. Tobler, N. S., & Stratton, H. H. (1997). Effectiveness ofschool-based drug prevention programs: A meta-analysis of the research.The Journal of Primary Prevention, 18(1), 71-128. Kelli England Will and Cynthia Shier Sabo Department of Pediatrics, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk,VirginiaTABLE 1Intervention Goals to Reduce Factors Contributing to Alcohol-RelatedProblemsFactors Intervention GoalsBeliefs about * Reinforce beliefs about harmful effectsalcohol use (e.g. of drinkingharmfulness ofdrinking alcohol, * Give accurate information about immediateprevalence of and long-term health effects of drinkingalcohol use) and about drinking prevalence among youth and adults * Emphasize benefits of not drinking alcohol * Experiential learning and interactive exercises * Underscore the personal risks and consequences of dring and driving using local crash photos and victim testimonialsBehavioral skills * Teach and model skills for refusing(e.g. refusal offers of alcohol products (e.g., teachskills) and practice different ways to say no to alcohol) * Teach general problem solving skills to enhance coping with difficult social situations * Exploring alternatives to drunk driving (e.g., using a designated driver, distributing wallet cards bearing taxi company phone numbers)Peer attitudes * Help teens identify peers who share& behaviors strong non-drinking attitudes and norms * Encourage teens to get involved in alcohol prevention activities (e.g., alcohol-prevention homework assignments, after-prom activity sponsored by school) * Normative beliefs feedbackRole Models * Involve influential adults (e.g., teachers, coaches, and judges) in programTABLE 2Frequency Table of DemographicsVariable n %Gender Male 295 42.4 Female 373 53.4Class Year 8th Grade 225 32.2 9th Grade 366 52.5 10th Grade 70 10.0 11th Grade 7 1.0Ethnicity White 319 46.0 Black 173 24.9 Pac. Islander/Asian 56 7.9 Hispanic 25 3.6 Mixed Origin 63 9.0 Other 32 4.6Note. N = 668TABLE 3Pre-Post Changes in Survey Items Pretest Posttest RAP Program Question M (SD) M (SD)1. A 12 oz. beer and a oz. 3.24 (1.06) 4.21 (1.06) glass of table wine contain the same amount of alcohol in it.2. Mixing alcoholic beverages 3.37 (l.14) 2.46 (l.28) (wine, beer, and liquor) helps obtain a quicker buzz. (Reverse Coded)3. A first-offense DUI can cost 3.01 (1.09) 3.39 (l.28) over $15,000.4. The brain is the only organ 1.76 (l.08) 1.75 (1.12) affected by alcoholic beverages. (Reverse Coded)5. Alcohol related car crashes 4.10 (0.91) 4.24 (l.00) are the leading cause of death for teenagers.6. It is unsafe to ride in a car 4.15 (l.05) 4.25 (0.97) with a driver who has had more than one drink.7. The majority of youth between 3.33 (0.98) 2.79 (l.33) the ages of 12 and 17 use alcohol at least once a month. (Reverse Coded)8. Using a fake ID can cost you 3.81 (0.94) 4.12 (0.90) $500 and cause you to lose your license.9. Drinking alcohol at an early 3.89(l.12) 4.13(l.03) age is linked with becoming an alcoholic during adult years.10. If a person is a little buzzed 2.17(l.12) 1.99(l.09) but not drunk, it's ok for s/he to drive. (Reverse Coded)11. An officer can incarcerate a 3.48 (0.94) 4.05(l.06) driver under the age of 21 if their BAC reading is higher than .02%.12. Alcohol kills five times more 3.18 (l.10) 4.08 (1.05) people than all other illegal drugs combined.13. Teens feel comfortable calling 2.06 (1.18) 2.35 (1.32) parents for a ride home if they are too intoxicated to drive.14. It is appropriate to drink 2.41 (1.27) 2.16 (l.21) alcohol before one's 21st birthday. (Reverse Coded)15. Drinking large amounts of 3.72 (l.02) 4.29 (0.93) alcohol in a short period of time can result in respiratory paralysis and death.16. My parents are legally allowed 3.29(l.26) 4.23 (1.01) to take my driver's license away at any time.17. Your license is immediately 3.39 (l.00) 4.08 (l.04) revoked for a week when you get pulled over for a DUI.18. Most drunk drivers can tell 2.36 (l.27) 2.12 (l.23) when they are too drunk to safely drive. (Reverse Coded)19. Regardless of size, females 3.08 (l.00) 3.90 (l.23) break down alcohol more slowly than males.20. Two beers in an hour would 3.29 (0.99) 4.05 (0.97) impair my visual judgment.21. If you're caught drinking at 3.53 (0.99) 4.13 (l.03) age 14, you can be denied your license at age 16.22. You can go to jail for up to 3.84 (1.00) 4.03 (1.09) 30 years if you kill someone while drunk driving.23. As a teen, your license can be 3.64 (0.87) 3.88 (1.10) revoked for 6 months if you're caught driving with a BAC of .02.24. Alcohol is a stimulant. 3.24 (l.17) 2.09 (l.31) (Reverse Coded)25. The average person can 3.10 (l.05) 2.81 (1.23) tolerate one drink per hour without substantial impairment. (Reverse Coded) RAP Program Question t [[eta].sup.2]1. A 12 oz. beer and a oz. -16.20 * 0.28 glass of table wine contain the same amount of alcohol in it.2. Mixing alcoholic beverages -14.05 * 0.23 (wine, beer, and liquor) helps obtain a quicker buzz. (Reverse Coded)3. A first-offense DUI can cost -5.97 * 0.05 over $15,000.4. The brain is the only organ -0.18 0.00 affected by alcoholic beverages. (Reverse Coded)5. Alcohol related car crashes -2.55 0.01 are the leading cause of death for teenagers.6. It is unsafe to ride in a car -1.80 0.01 with a driver who has had more than one drink.7. The majority of youth between -8.41 * 0.10 the ages of 12 and 17 use alcohol at least once a month. (Reverse Coded)8. Using a fake ID can cost you -6.39 * 0.06 $500 and cause you to lose your license.9. Drinking alcohol at an early -4.19 * 0.03 age is linked with becoming an alcoholic during adult years.10. If a person is a little buzzed -3.02 0.01 but not drunk, it's ok for s/he to drive. (Reverse Coded)11. An officer can incarcerate a -10.53 * 0.14 driver under the age of 21 if their BAC reading is higher than .02%.12. Alcohol kills five times more -15.23 * 0.26 people than all other illegal drugs combined.13. Teens feel comfortable calling -4.37 * 0.03 parents for a ride home if they are too intoxicated to drive.14. It is appropriate to drink -3.79 * 0.02 alcohol before one's 21st birthday. (Reverse Coded)15. Drinking large amounts of -10.64 * 0.15 alcohol in a short period of time can result in respiratory paralysis and death.16. My parents are legally allowed -14.89 * 0.25 to take my driver's license away at any time.17. Your license is immediately -12.17 * 0.18 revoked for a week when you get pulled over for a DUI.18. Most drunk drivers can tell -3.60 * 0.02 when they are too drunk to safely drive. (Reverse Coded)19. Regardless of size, females -13.39 * 0.21 break down alcohol more slowly than males.20. Two beers in an hour would -14.61 * 0.24 impair my visual judgment.21. If you're caught drinking at -10.99 * 0.15 age 14, you can be denied your license at age 16.22. You can go to jail for up to -3.58 * 0.02 30 years if you kill someone while drunk driving.23. As a teen, your license can be -4.52 * 0.03 revoked for 6 months if you're caught driving with a BAC of .02.24. Alcohol is a stimulant. -16.98 * 0.30 (Reverse Coded)25. The average person can -4.65 * 0.03 tolerate one drink per hour without substantial impairment. (Reverse Coded)Note. Participants (N = 668) responded using a Likert-type scale,where 1 = Strongly Disagree and 5 = Strongly Agree. Reverse codeditems were reverse coded prior to all statistical analyses. ABonferroni adjusted alpha level of .002 was used to assessstatistical significance.* p < .001.

Also received.

Also received. References to reviews of the hardback editions in previous volumesof ANTIQUITY are added in parentheses. GUY DE LA BEDOYERE. Eagles over Britannia: the Roman army inBritain. 256 pages, 122 figures, 32 colour photographs, 4 maps. 2003.Stroud & Charleston (SC): Tempus; 0-7524-2923-X paperback 17.99[pounds sterling] & $29.99. [Vol. 75: 615-6] JEAN BOTTERO, CLARISSE HERRENSCHMIDT & JEAN-PIERRE VERNANT.Ancestor of the West: writing, reasoning, and religion in Mesopotamia,Elam, and Greece (tr. Teresa Lavender Fagan). xiii+192 pages, 8 figures.[2000] Chicago (IL): University of Chicago Press The University of Chicago Press is the largest university press in the United States. It is operated by the University of Chicago and publishes a wide variety of academic titles, including The Chicago Manual of Style, dozens of academic journals, including ; 0-226-06716-5paperback $14 & 10 [pounds sterling]. [Vol. 74: 721-2] GWENDOLYN LEICK. Sex and eroticism in Mesopotamian literature,xvi+320 pages, 11 b&w photographs. 2003. London: Routledge;0-415-31161-6 paperback. [Vol. 69: 632-3] IAN N. GREGORY (History Data Service). A place in history: a guideto using GIS in historical research, vii+80 pages, 21 figures, 11tables. 2003. Oxford: Oxbow; 1-84217-036-8 (ISSN ISSNabbr.International Standard Serial Number 1463-5194) paperback 12[pounds sterling]. JOHN PETER WILD. Textiles in archaeology [1st ed.]. 68 pages, 45figures. 1988. Princes Risborough: Shire; 0-85263-931-7 paperback 5.99[pounds sterling]. JONATHAN DEE. Isis, queen of Egyptian magic, her book of divinationand spells. 160 pages, colour illustrations. 2003. London: Cico;1-903116-60-0 hardback 16.99 [pounds sterling]. LIBA LIBA London Investment Banking Association (finance)LIBA Loyola Institute of Business AdministrationLIBA Leeds Institute for Plant Biotechnology and AgricultureLIBA Light Improved Ballistic Armor TAUB. Ancient meteorology, xiv+271 pages, 15 figures. 2003.London: Routledge; 0-415-16195-9 hardback, 0-415-16196-7 paperback. DEMOSTHENES (tr. Victor Bers). Demosthenes, speeches 50-59.xxxi+205 pages. 2003. Austin (TX): University of Texas Press;0-292-70921-8 hardback, 0-292-70922-6 paperback. ERIC W. ROBINSON (ed.). Ancient Greek democracy: readings andsources, xiv+326 pages, 3 figures. [2003] Malden (MA) & Oxford:Blackwell; 0-631-233938 hardback $69.95 & 60 [pounds sterling],0-631-233946 paperback $34.95 & 17.99 [pounds sterling]. Middle& Near East F. ROBERT RODMAN. Winnicott: life and work. xv+461 pages, 26illustrations. 2003. Cambridge (MA): Perseus; 0-7382-0397-1 hardback$30. SIR THOMAS MALORY Noun 1. Sir Thomas Malory - English writer who published a translation of romances about King Arthur taken from French and other sources (died in 1471)Malory, Thomas Malory . Le morte d'Arthur Le Morte d'Arthur (spelled Le Morte Darthur in the first printing and also in some modern editions, Middle French for la mort d'Arthur, "the death of Arthur") is Sir Thomas Malory's compilation of some French and English Arthurian romances. (ed. John Matthews).lxxiv+950 pages, 62 colour & b&w illustrations. 2003. London:Cassell; 1-84403-001-6 paperback 16.99 [pounds sterling] & US$24.95& CAN$38.95. HIMADRI BANERJEE. The other Sikhs: a view from eastern India (Vol.1). 279 pages. 2003. New Delhi: Manohar; 81-7304-495-3 hardback Rs550.

Reissued in paperback.

Reissued in paperback. HUGH KENNEDY Hugh Kennedy may also refer to Professor in History of the Islamic Middle East, Islamic Archaeology, Muslim Spain Hugh N. KennedyHugh Kennedy . Crusader castles, xvi+221 pages, 25 figures, 81b&w plates, 7 colour plates. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP) is a publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534, and one of the two privileged presses (the other being Oxford University Press). ;0-521-79913-9 paperback 12.95 [pounds sterling]. R. ROSS HOLLOWAY. The archaeology of ancient Sicily. xix+211 pages,224 figures. 2000. London: Routledge; 0-415-23791-2 paperback 19.99[pounds sterling]. EUPHROSYNE DOXIADIS. The mysterious Fayum portraits: faces fromancient Egypt. 248 pages, 150 b&w figures, 124 colour illustrations.2000. London: Thames & Hudson; 0-500-28217-X paperback 24.95 [poundssterling]. MICHAEL LAPIDGE, JOHN BLAIR, SIMON KEYNES & DONALD SCRAGG(ed.). The Blackwell encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England. xviii+537pages, 21 figures, 24 plates, 12 maps. 2000. Oxford & Malden (MA):Blackwell; 0-631-22492-0 paperback 17.99 [pounds sterling] &US$34.95. GREGORY A. RUF Noun 1. RUF - a terrorist group formed in the 1980s in Sierra Leone; seeks to overthrow the government and gain control of the diamond producing regions; responsible for attacks on civilians and children, widespread torture and murder and using children to commit . Cadres and kin: making a socialist village in westChina, 1921-1991. xxi+250 pages, 23 figures, 3 tables. 1998. Stanford(CA): Stanford University Press; 0-8047-4129-8 $18.95 & 11.95[pounds sterling]. The archaeology of ancient Sicily was reviewed in ANTIQUITY 65:1011-12, Fayum portraits in ANTIQUITY 70: 195, The Blackwellencyclopaedia in ANTIQUITY 73: 459-60.

Rejoinder brief comments on: Iban Art: Sexual Selection and Severed Heads--Weaving, Sculpture, Tattooing and Other Arts of the Iban of Borneo.

Rejoinder brief comments on: Iban Art: Sexual Selection and Severed Heads--Weaving, Sculpture, Tattooing and Other Arts of the Iban of Borneo. Iban Art: Sexual Selection and Severed Heads--Weaving, Sculpture,Tattooing and Other Arts of the Iban of Borneo, by Michael Heppell,Limbang anak Melaka, and Enyan anak Usen (2005). Leiden/ Amsterdam: C.Zwartenkot-Art Books/KIT Publishers and Women's War: An Update of the Literature on Iban Textiles, byMichael Heppell. Borneo Research Bulletin, 2006, vol. 37, pp. 182-92. Heppell's book Iban Art contains numerous, extensive footnotesthat remark critically on my doctoral thesis Iban Ritual Textiles,published by KITLV in 2003. Heppell extracted these notes and with a fewalterations and additions published them separately inthe BRB as an"update" of the recent literature on Iban weaving, includingsome references to Linggi (2001) and Ong (n.d.), minimally amended froman earlier version published in Moussons in 2005. The disparaging toneof many of Heppell's remarks is quite out of place in a scholarlydebate. Bur more importantly, in many instances Heppell'sstatements leave one wondering as to what extent be has actually read mybook. Three examples should suffice to demonstrate my point. Freeman's notes For example, Heppell writes: "The Freemans' drawings andnotes are freely accessible in the Tun Jugah Foundation in Kuching,Sarawak. Gavin accessed these notes and one of the mysteries of her bookis that she barely used them" (2006a: 185); and "She largelyignores the field notes of the acknowledged authority on the Iban,Freeman" (2006a: 190). Yet, in fact, at the time of writing my thesis, the Freemans'unpublished notes and drawings were still at their home in Canberra andI traveled there in order to study them, which is clearly stated in thepreface (p. viii) and acknowledgments (p. x), I refer to these notes invirtually every chapter on a wide range of topics from dreams, charms,ritual prohibitions and pattern names to individual weavers the Freemansand I had known and so on. In chapter 3 alone, there are over fifty suchreferences. In addition, fourteen of Monica Freeman's drawings areincluded in the illustrations and clearly marked as such in the list offigures. By contrast, Heppell's chapter 5 on weaving has fourreferences to Freeman's notes; chapter 6 on plaitwork has seven;and the remainder of the book has another five, sixteen in total. I restmy case. Rang jugah Furthermore Heppell's remark regarding the rangjugah patternagain makes one wonder to what degree he has read my book. He writes:"Gavin's [Baleh] informants told her that there is nopraise-name for rangjugah or, perhaps, that they did not know it"(2006a: 188); he adds in a footnote on the same page: "There is ajulok for rangjugah in the Batang Ai--rangjugah, nyawa ngempuau, bausinang [...], leading one to speculate that the Baleh Iban might havetaken the design with them, but not the julok." Actually, in my book (p. 139) I quote this very same fragment of ajulok, which was recited to Heppell and me by a Baleh weaver on 14thSeptember 1988, on the occasion of an international weaving seminar inKuching. I remember the incident well because Heppell and I consideredit very important information as neither of us had so far recorded apraise name for the rang jugah pattern. The informant also happened tobe my host at the Baleh longhouse where I conducted much of my fieldresearch. First, it is unfortunate that Heppell should not haveremembered the occasion, or have recorded it in his field notes. Second,it is most peculiar that he should not have taken note of the quotedjulok and discussion in my book. Again, the question is: to what extenthas he actually read and properly studied it? Ngar In my book (pp. 56-64), I provide a detailed analysis of the ngarto show conclusively that all of us (myself included, as well as theFreemans) were mistaken in referring to the ngar as the'application of mordants', but rather that the ngar is a'pretreatment' that does not involve a mordant at all. It istherefore puzzling that Heppell in his "update" (2006a: 183)continues to refer to the ngar as including a mordant. Surely it is thevery purpose of an update to point out new information, especially if itchallenges the established understanding of a process as important asthe ngar, which is specifically linked to headhunting (kayau indu).Again, it seems that Heppell has not actually read my book, or at leastnot to the degree that is customary before writing an "update"that makes sweeping critical allegations. Heppell's Book In the following remarks on Heppell's book (2005) I want tofocus on the factual evidence on which this densely illustratedpublication is based. Or, to repeat Reed Wadley's question(2006:260), are the standards that of a scholarly treatise or of acoffee-table book? The first fact is that there is no list of plates or figures. It isonly in the acknowledgments that we learn that the photographs are of"pieces in Australian collections, which comprise all the plateswhich are not attributed to others" (pp. 5-6). Regarding thetextiles, there are only three plates attributed to others (plates 49,50, 62), and a further three that were woven by Enyan, the co-author(plates 60, 70, 74). What this means is that the remaining 63 textiles(or roughly 91%) are part of one or several undocumented privatecollections, which, according to Heppell (p. 6), were "collectedafter 1960" by a person or persons whose identity is not disclosed.This does not pose a problem as such, as it is not unknown forcollectors to prefer to remain anonymous. However, given thecollection's apparent lack of provenance, it is surprising thatmany cloths are given a precise place or river of origin, such as Pantu,Krian, Skrang, Layar, Undup and so on. In order for this to be acceptedas valid documentation we really need to know on whose authority it isbased. Another major concern for undocumented private collections is thereliability of pattern identifications. As I wrote in my introduction(2003:21), a reliable identification of a given pattern can only beobtained from the weaver who made it, or from her descendants orimmediate family. This is perhaps the only statement of mine with whichHeppell seems to agree. He writes that, "Gavin is quite right forrepeating that you need to talk to the woman who conceived the design tounderstand it" (2006a:188). In his book he compares pattern namesto the memory boards used by the bards, where each mark or sign standsfor a whole segment of the ritual chants. He states that,"'The only people who can interpret a particular board arethose who have been joined to it through instruction," and adds,"The same is true of cloths" (p. 69); and, "Like thedesign of a cloth, it requires the person who has designed it tointerpret it" (p. 70). It is therefore puzzling indeed that Heppell consistently appliespraise names provided by Enyan for cloths she has not woven herself; norwere these cloths woven by members of her family, or her longhousecommunity in the Delok, or for that matter in longhouses elsewhere inthe Batang Ai. Instead (according to Heppell's own captions), theyoriginate from the Baleh, and other regions that are known to have asignificantly different tradition of pattern names, such as the Saribas,and more specifically the Layar, Undup, Pantu, and Lingga (Balau) (1).And yet, Heppell offers no explanation for this obvious contradiction. To be fair, Heppell does state in bis acknowledgments (p. 6) that,"Much of the information about weaving was obtained fromEnyan." In other words, here he acknowledges the fact that hisinformation is mainly derived from one informant. However, this fact isnot carried over into the main text where be routinely presentsEnyan's interpretations of other weavers' cloth patterns asbeing generally valid. Heppell's reliance on these interpretationsis particularly disconcerting when they are applied to ancient sungkitpatterns (plates 18, 57, 83) for which we are in dire need of reliabledata (see Gavin and Barnes 1999:88). In an earlier publication(1996:73), I both repeated and questioned some of Enyan'sinterpretations of sungkit motifs, but I always assumed that whenHeppell eventually published his book on Iban weaving he would provideevidence that would place these interpretations firmly within a widerBatang Ai tradition. This he most emphatically has not done andEnyan's interpretations remain those of one single informant, whichcertainly is not a basis on which to construct as assertive an accountas Heppell has presented here. Regarding Heppell's main thesis of great weavers marryinggreat headhunters, I agree with Reed Wadley (2006:263) that this thesisfalls apart due to the simple fact that young unmarried women have notyet proven themselves as great weavers because only older women dare toweave powerful patterns. Heppell's counterargument that one doesnot need to have woven a powerful pattern "to demonstratetalent" (2006b:266) does not stand up to scrutiny, as manytechnically accomplished weavers never advanced to weaving powerfulpatterns as these required dream invitations, the bestowal of charms byhelping spirits and so on, especially in past headhunting days whichafter all is the period Heppell claims to be writing about. We all arefamiliar with the saying that women were not considered fit for marriageunless they had woven a pua, and men unless they had taken a head. Butit is puzzling why Heppell would want to take this maxim to such anextreme position and what, if any, advancement this would mean for ourunderstanding of Iban cultural practice. Heppell's ungraciousresponse to Wadley's measured and well-researched review largelyignores the factual criticism brought forward, and instead counters withyet more anecdotal "evidence," or "just-so stories,"of which, as Wadley rightly says, "we have plenty already"(2006:263). References cited Gavin, Traude 1996 The Women's Warpath: Iban Ritual Fabricsfrom Borneo. Los Angeles: UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural History. 2003 Iban Ritual Textiles. Leiden: KITLV Press, Verhandelingen 205. Gavin, Traude and Ruth Barnes 1999 Iban Prestige Textiles and theTrade in Indian Cloth; Inspiration and Perception, Textile History30:81-7. Heppell, Michael 2005 Women's War: An Update of the Literatureon Iban Textiles. Moussons 8: 143-53. 2006a Women's War: An Update of the Literature on IbanTextiles. Borneo Research Bulletin, 37:182-92. 2006b Response to Reed Wadley's Review of Iban Art. BorneoResearch Bulletin, 37: 264-6. Heppell, Michael and Limbang anak Melaka, Enyan anak Usen 2005 IbanArt: Sexual Selection and Severed Heads--Weaving, Sculpture, Tattooingand Other Arts of the Iban of Borneo. Leiden/Amsterdam: C.Zwartenkot-Art Books/KIT Publishers. Linggi, Margaret 2001 Ties that bind: Iban Ikat Weaving. Kuching:The Tun Jugah Foundation & The Borneo Research Council. Ong, Edric n.d. Woven Dreams: Ikat Textiles of Sarawak. Kuching:Society Atelier Sarawak. Wadley, Reed 2006 Review of M. Heppell, Iban Art: Sexual Selectionand Severed Heads--Weaving, Sculpture, Tattooing and Other Arts of theIban of Borneo. Leiden/Amsterdam: C. Zwartenkot-Art Books/KITPublishers; Borneo Research Bulletin, 37: 260-4. Endnotes (1) Details of cloths for which Enyan provided praise names: Plates 13 Saribas pua kumbu; text p.32; compare plate 67; 19 Pantupuapilih; text p.43, note 16; p.78, note 56; 52 Baleh pua kumbu; text p.66, note 28; 53 Saribas pua kumbu; text p.66, note 28; 54 Balau pua pilih; text p.66, note 28; 55 Saribas pua kumbu; text p.66, note 28; 56 Undup baju buri; text p.53, note 43; 57 Baleh pua sungkit; text p.43, note 18; p.71, note 36; 63 Baleh pua sungkit; text p.78, note 58; 67 Balau pua pilih; text p.80, note 61 ; 68 Saribas pzza kumbu; text p.80, note 62; 71 Krian pua kumbu; text p.83, note 67; 83 Baleh kelambi sungkit; text p.81, note 65; p.87; 85 Saribas kelambi sungkit; text p. 88, note 84; 96 Baleh pua sungkit; text p.94, note 7; 97 Layarpua kumbu (erroneously referred to as plate 98 in thetext); text p.94, note 7 Traude Gavin Much Marcle HR8 2NX U.K.

Relationship between measures of adaptive functioning and community adjustment for adults with mental retardation.

Relationship between measures of adaptive functioning and community adjustment for adults with mental retardation. * The construct of adaptive functioning adaptive functioning,n the relative ability of a person to effectively interact with society on all levels and care for one's self; affected by one's willingness to practice skills and pursue opportunities for improvement on all levels. is relatively old; itscontemporary roots can be found in the early social competency researchand definitions of mental retardation mental retardation,below average level of intellectual functioning, usually defined by an IQ of below 70 to 75, combined with limitations in the skills necessary for daily living. (Doll, 1934, 1953; Kanner 1964;Scheerenberger, 1983). During the past two decades, however, adaptivefunctioning has been the object of considerable activity. This activityhas focused on a variety of theoretical and practical issues, such asthe definition of adaptive behavior Adaptive behavior is a type of behavior that is used to adapt to another type of behavior or situation. This is often characterized by a kind of behavior that allows an individual to substitute an unconstructive or disruptive behavior to something more constructive. (Clausen, 1972; Grossman, 1983;Leland, Shellhaas, Nihira, & Foster, 1967; Mercer mer��cer?n. Chiefly BritishA dealer in textiles, especially silks.[Middle English, from Old French mercier, trader, from merz, merchandise, from Latin merx , 1973, 1979;Reschly, 1982, 1985, 1987; Zigler, Balla, & Hodapp, 1984), theintegration of the adaptive behavior construct within broader models ofpersonal competence (Greenspan, 1979, 1981a, 1981b; McGrew &Bruininks, 1990), empirical investigations of the nature of the adaptivebehavior construct (Keith, Fehrmann, Harrison, & Pottebaum, 1987;Keith, Harrison, & Ehly, 1987; McGrew & Bruininks, 1989, 1990;McGrew, Ittenbach, Bruininks, & Hill, 1991), and the assessment ofadaptive behavior (Harrison, 1987; Health,1986; Holman & Bruininks,1985; Meyers, Nihira, & Zetlin, 1979). The American Association of Mental Retardation's Manual onTerminology and Classification (Grossman, 1973, 1977, 1983) provides adefinition of adaptive behavior, but there remains some disagreement onhow to operationally define and measure adaptive functioning. Despitesome remaining definitional and measurement issues, professionalsincreasingly are required to formally assess adaptive behavior,especially as it relates to criteria for classifying someone as anindividual with mental retardation and determining eligibility forservices. An important issue in the application of the adaptive behaviorconstruct is criterion-related validity. Extensive research hasinvestigated the relation between measures of adaptive behavior andmeasures of intelligence, academic achievement, physical developmentalabilities, and social skills (Harrison, 1987; Kamphaus, 1987; McGrew& Bruininks, 1990). A major problem, however, remains--lack ofevidence for sound predictive validity In psychometrics, predictive validity is the extent to which a scale predicts scores on some criterion measure.For example, the validity of a cognitive test for job performance is the correlation between test scores and, for example, supervisor performance ratings. related to major aspects ofadaptation in community environments (Kamphaus). Though adaptivebehavior has been found to correlate significantly with measures ofacademic achievement, the magnitude of the correlations suggests thatknowledge of performance on adaptive behavior scales adds little topredictive ability beyond what is already provided by measures ofintelligence. Perhaps a more important criterion for research and for educationaland human service providers would be the prediction of nonacademicfunctioning, such as performance in a variety of community settings. Inrecent reviews, Kamphaus (1987) and Harrison (1987) found that adaptivebehavior correlated cor��re��late?v. cor��re��lat��ed, cor��re��lat��ing, cor��re��latesv.tr.1. To put or bring into causal, complementary, parallel, or reciprocal relation.2. at moderate levels with a variety of nonacademiccriteria (e.g., workshop placement, hourly salary, group home residentperformance, and postschool adjustment ratings). However, this researchhas been limited to a handful of studies with a few adaptive behaviorscales, limited samples, and a limited range of outcomes. More recent research in community adjustment has focused onmultidimensional outcome measures developed within conceptual models ofcommunity adjustment (Bruininks, Thurlow, McGrew, & Lewis, 1990;Halpern, Nave nave(nāv), in general, all that part of a church that extends from the atrium to the altar and is intended exclusively for the laity. In a strictly architectural sense, however, the term indicates only the central aisle, excluding side aisles. , Close, & Nelson, 1986; Heal, 1985; McGrew, Bruininks,Thurlow, & Lewis, in press). In a sample of 257 adults with mild tomoderate retardation retardation:see mental retardation. , Halpern et al. (1986) used confirmatory factoryanalysis methods to validate a four-factor community adjustment modelthat included the dimensions of occupation, residential environment,social support/safety, and client satisfaction. In a sample of 239 youngadults with mild to severe retardation, McGrew, Bruininks, Thurlow andLewis (in press) used confirmatory factor analysis In statistics, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is a special form of factor analysis. It is used to assess the the number of factors and the loadings of variables. methods to test andcross-validate a four-dimensional model of community adjustment using 12separate measures. These investigators reported evidence in support of amodel that included the dimensions of social network/integration,recreation/leisure integration, community/economic integration, and needfor support services support servicesPsychology Non-health care-related ancillary services–eg, transportation, financial aid, support groups, homemaker services, respite services, and other services . The prevalent approach in assessing community adaptation is toassess single outcomes, such as employment status, without regard to theclustering of multiple measure into broader constructs (see Goldstein,1964; McCarver & Craig, 1974). Through the use of multivariatestatistical procedures, it is increasingly feasible to identify broadermeasures of adaptation. Research on the adaptive behavior of people withmental retardation has similarly been limited to single measures, oftenwithout assessment of maladaptive MaladaptiveUnsuitable or counterproductive; for example, maladaptive behavior is behavior that is inappropriate to a given situation.Mentioned in: Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy behaviors, thereby unduly restrictingthe overall measurement of adaptive skills (Bruininks, Thurlow, &Gilman, 1987). Studies have relied primarily on assessing relationsamong different dimensions of personal competence (e.g., intelligence,academic achievement, and adaptive behavior). These studies have usedlimited measures, without regard to actual measures of adaptation inhome, work, and community environments. Finally, few studies haveemployed multivariate statistical methods to enable the full explorationof relations among measures of adaptive behavior skills and otherconstructs. There is a pressing need for research to explore the relationbetween aspects of adaptive behavior and a broad array ofcommunity-based criterion measures. The purpose of this study was toexplore the relation between measures of adaptive and maladaptivebehavior and several previously validated, multidimensional communityadjustment measures. METHODSample The sample included young people who had exited secondary publicschool programs in a large midwestern metropolitan area and who wereclassified as having mild (n = 44), moderate (n = 91), or severe (n =104) degrees of mental retardation. During their high school grades, thestudents with mild disabilities were mainstreamed and were served inresource rooms for part of their school day. The students with moderateor severe disabilities were served primarily in separate specialeducation programs either outside their school district or in analternative school. The 239 subjects (126 male, 113 female) representeda 68% response rate from all possible subjects who had been out ofschool from 1 to 10 years and who were contacted for the study. Subjectswere contacted first by telephone, followed by a letter that confirmedtheir agreement to participate in the study and repeated information onthe scheduled time In rallying, the Scheduled Time of any crew is the time, calculated at the beginning of the event, that they should arrive at any given control. It is different from Due Time in that Due Time is dynamic, ie it can change throughout the event as competitors drop time; whereas of the interview. At the time of the follow-up contacts, the subjects were found tolive and work in a variety of settings. The most frequent daytimeactivities for the subjects were involvement in a day/work activitycenter (48.7%), competitive employment (27.3%), or a sheltered workshop(14.7%). The remaining subjects were either involved in no formalprogram outside of their home (5.9%), or were involved insupervise/supported employment (2.5%) or day care settings (0.8%). Thelargest number of subjects were either living with family members orrelatives (46.9%) or in a group residence (41.8%). The remainingsubjects were either living independently or with friends (6.7%); werein apartment training or a half-way house (3.4%); or were in aninstitution, hospital, or nursing home (1.3%). The mean chronologicalage chron��o��log��i��cal agen. Abbr. CAThe number of years a person has lived, used especially in psychometrics as a standard against which certain variables, such as behavior and intelligence, are measured. of the sample was 302.1 months (SD = 33.4 months), and the meanadaptive behavior age (as measured by the Inventory for Client andAgency Planning) was 122.4 months (SD = 88.7 months). Instrumentation Information from the Inventory for Client and Agency Planning(ICAP (1) (Internet Content Adaptation Protocol) A high-level protocol for requesting services from an Internet-based server. iCAP provides a common format for requesting services using standard HTTP messaging. ) (Bruininks, Hill, Weatherman, & Woodcock woodcock:see snipe. woodcockAny of five species (family Scolopacidae) of plump, sharp-billed migratory birds of damp, dense woodlands in North America, Europe, and Asia. , 1986) was gathereddirectly from the respondent In Equity practice, the party who answers a bill or other proceeding in equity. The party against whom an appeal or motion, an application for a court order, is instituted and who is required to answer in order to protect his or her interests. , who was either the former student or aninformed third party. The ICAP is a tool for managing informationrelated to planning and evaluating services for people withdisabilities, including information on diagnostic and health status,adaptive behavior, problem or maladaptive behaviors, projected serviceneeds, current service placement, support services, and social-leisureactivities. The adaptive behavior section contains 77 adaptive behavioritems that are also used in a more extensive test, the Scales ofIndependent Behavior (SIB sib:see clan. ) (Bruininks, Woodcock, Weatherman, & Hill,1984). The ICAP also includes standardized Problem Behavior scales. TheICAP was standardized on 1,764 subjects selected to be representative ofthe U.S. population (1980 census). Test-retest, internal consistency In statistics and research, internal consistency is a measure based on the correlations between different items on the same test (or the same subscale on a larger test). It measures whether several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce similar scores. ,and interrater reliabilities are generally in the .80s to .90s.Extensive validity studies (Bruininks, Woodcock, Hill, & Weatherman,1985; Bruininks et al., 1986) have indicated that the scalesdiscriminate dis��crim��i��nate?v. dis��crim��i��nat��ed, dis��crim��i��nat��ing, dis��crim��i��natesv.intr.1. a. well between samples of individuals with and withoutdisabilities, correlate in the .70s with other adaptive behavior scales,and correlate highly with age. The four ICAP adaptive behavior clusters were used in thisanalysis. The Social/Communication skills cluster measures socialinteraction and the ability to use and understand language. The PersonalLiving skills cluster measures an individual's effectiveness inmeeting the everyday demands of personal independence and autonomy(e.g., self-care, eating, dressing). The Community Living skills clusterassesses successful adjustment in the community (e.g., time, money, workskills, use of community). Finally, the Motor skills cluster assessesgross and fine motor skills. The ICAP Problem Behavior Scales use eight problem behavior scalesto represent three maladaptive clusters. The Internalized clustermeasures maladaptive behavior directed toward oneself, and theExternalized cluster measures maladaptive behavior directed towardothers or the environment. The Asocial a��so��cialadj.1. Avoiding or averse to the society of others; not sociable.2. Unable or unwilling to conform to normal standards of social behavior; antisocial. cluster measures maladaptivebehavior in social contexts. The adaptive behavior cluster scores werein the form of W scores, a special transformation of the Rasch abilityscales (Bruininks et al., 1985, 1986; Woodcock, 1978). The W scale is anequal-interval scale centered on a value of 500, which is theapproximate average performance of a beginning fifth-grade student. Themaladaptive clusters are based on a scale with a zero mean and astandard deviation of 10, which represents the variability typicallyobserved in a variety of clinical samples (Bruininks et al., 1985). A 142-question interview protocol was administered concurrently tothe same respondents In the context of marketing research, a representative sample drawn from a larger population of people from whom information is collected and used to develop or confirm marketing strategy. . This protocol was designed to gather informationconcerning the subject's current work, day program or otheractivities, past employment, job-search skills, education, day programparticipation, living arrangements, social networks, citizenresponsibilities, use of support programs, and social adjustment andskills (Bruininks, Lewis, & Thurlow, 1990; Thurlow, Bruininks, &Lange, 1989; Thurlow, Bruininks, Wolman, & Steffens, 1989). Throughthe use of exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, Bruininks,Thurlow, McGrew, and Lewis (1990) and McGrew, Bruininks, Thurlow, andLewis (in press) reduced the pool of 142 interview items and selectedICAP service information items to the 12 composite community adjustmentvariables presented in Table 1. In this table, the variables areorganized according to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. the four community adjustment factors validatedin the McGrew, Bruininks, Thurlow, and Lewis (in press) confirmatoryfactor analysis study. [Tabular Data 1 Omitted] The four factors identified by McGrew, Bruininks, Thurlow, andLewis (in press) were as follows: * Social Network/Integration--theextent to which a person has developed an active social network. * Recreation/Leisure Integration--the extent to which a person is actively involved in formal and informal recreation and leisure activities both at home and in the community. * Community/EconomicIntegration--the extent to which a person is independent in the community in the areas of economics and income, daytime activities, and living arrangements. * Need for Support Services--the extent to which a person needs a wide variety of services to function without the community. RESULTS Canonical correlation procedures were used to explore the relationbetween the set of four adaptive and three maladaptive variables and thefour sets of community adjustment variables representing the dimensionsof social network/integration, recreation/leisure integration,community/economic integration, and need for support services. Canonicalcorrelation procedures, which examine the relation between two sets ofvariables when each set consists of at least two variables (Cooley &Lohnes, 1971; Thompson, 1984), were judged to be more appropriate thaneither the calculation of all pairwise correlations among measures ofadaptive/maladaptive behavior and community adjustment variables, or theexploration of the linear relations between the adaptive/maladaptivevariables and single community adjustment outcome variables throughmultiple regression. Prior research with this data set (Bruininks, Thurlow, McGrew,& Lewis, 1990; McGrew, Bruininks, Thurlow, & Lewis, in press)indicated that the 12 community adjustment variables are bestinterpreted to represent four factors and should thus be combined intomultidimensional criteria. In addition, factor analytic Adj. 1. factor analytic - of or relating to or the product of factor analysisfactor analytical research withthe same seven ICAP clusters in this and other studies has consistentlyfound the four adaptive clusters to form a single adaptive dimension andthe three maladaptive clusters to form a single maladaptive dimension(Bruininks, Thurlow, McGrew, & Lewis, 1988; McGrew & Bruininks,1987; McGrew et al., in press). Both empirical and conceptual evidencesuggest that canonical correlation procedures would best examine therelations between these sets of multivariate dimensions. The purpose of the current study was to determine whether anysignificant relation existed among adaptive/maladaptive behavior and thecommunity adjustment measures, and, if significant, to determine thedegree of this relation. The following information was obtained fromeach canonical analysis: (a) canonical correlations and relatedstatistics and (b) significant canonical variates and canonicalloadings. Within each of the four community adjustment dimensions, threeseparate canonical analyses were performed: 1. Adaptive and maladaptiveclusters with the respective community adjustment variables. 2. Adaptive behaviorclusters with the respective community adjustment variables. 3. Maladaptive behavior clusterswith the respective community adjustment variables. The .01 significancelevel was used to evaluate the significance of the canonical results. The results shown in Table 2 reveal a strong significant relationbetween the set of adaptive/maladaptive behavior variables and the setof community/economic integration variables. Canonical correlations of.74 were found between the set of community/economic integrationvariables and the sets of adaptive/maladaptive and adaptive behavior.The majority of the relation with the set of community/economicintegration variables appears to result primarily from the adaptivebehavior clusters. All adaptive behavior clusters loaded highly on thesignificant variate: the highest loading was for Community Living Skills(.98 and .99), and the lowest was Motor Skills (.72). [Tabular Data 2Omitted] The maladaptive behavior clusters appeared to add little to thecanonical correlation; but when they were used in isolation, this set ofproblem behavior measures displayed a significant relation (canonicalcorrelation = .44) with the rest of community/economic integrationvariables. Across the two relevant analyses, the three maladaptiveclusters displayed loadings at approximately the same level. The patternof loadings for the community/economic integration variables on thethree variates was similar to the pattern of factor loadings reported byMcGrew, Bruininks, Thurlow, and Lewis (in press) for theirCommunity/Economic Integration factor. There were higher loadings forthe variables reflecting degree of economic independence (EconomicIntegration, Earned Income) and independence in work and residentialliving arrangements (Day-time Activity and Living Arrangements). Thesefindings suggest that increasing levels of adaptive behavior areassociated with increasing degrees of community/economic independenceand integration. The relations between the sets of adaptive and maladaptive clustersand the set of need for support variables are summarized in Table 3. Allthree canonical variates were significant. Similar to the resultspresented for community/economic integration, the largest canonicalcorrelations were for the adaptive/maladaptive (.47) and adaptive only(.44) analyses. The adaptive behavior variables accounted for themajority of the relationship with the need for support variables. Again,the Personal Living Skills (.83, .90), Community Living Skills (.90,.98), and Social/Communications Skills (.84, .91) clusters loaded thehighest on the significant variates. The Motor Skills clustercontributed less (.62, .67) to the significant variates. [Tabular Data 3Omitted] In contrast to the findings shown in Table 2, the three ICAPmaladaptive behavior clusters loaded differentially on the two variatesin which they were included. In both cases, the Asocial Maladaptivecluster appeared to be most strongly related to the variate (.64, .92).When only the set of maladaptive behavior clusters were included in theanalyses, the Asocial (.92) and Internal (.83) maladaptive clusters weremost strongly associated with the variate, followed by the External(.67) maladaptive cluster. Because all variables were scaled so thathigher scores indicated higher functioning or better communityadjustment, this finding suggests that the need for community supportservices was less when the individual displayed lower levels of asocialand internally directed maladaptive behavior. Moreover, higher levels ofadaptive behavior appeared to be most strongly related with lower needsfor community support services. The relations between the sets of adaptive or maladaptive clustersand the social network/integration variables were all significant (Table4). Similar to the results presented for community/economic integrationand need for support, the largest canonical correlations were for theadaptive/maladaptive (.38) and adaptive-only (.30) analyses. Theadaptive behavior variables accounted for the majority of therelationship with the social network/integration variables. All fouradaptive behavior clusters and both social network/integration variablesloaded at or above .71 on the significant variate in the adaptive-onlyanalysis. This suggests that higher levels of adaptive behavior areassociated with a larger number and variety of social contacts. In thecase of the maladaptive only analyses, the loadings suggest that lessexternal (.53) and internal (.58) maladaptive behavior may be associatedwith a larger variety of friends (.87). [Tabular Data 4 Omitted] In the area of recreation/leisure integration (Table 5),significant canonical correlations were found in the adaptive behaviorclusters either alone (.27) or in combination with the maladaptivebehavior clusters (.30). No significant canonical variate was found withthe set of maladaptive behavior clusters. For the two significantvariates reported in Table 5, all adaptive behavior cluster loadingswere at or above .71, while the Recreation/Leisure-Social variableloaded the highest on the variates (.78 and .82), followed byRecreation/Leisure-Informal and Home (.44 and .32). These resultssuggest that higher levels of involvement in social and informalrecreation/leisure activities are associated with higher levels ofadaptive behavior. The variable that reflected organized activities inthe community (Recreation/Leisure-Formal and Community) displayednegative loadings (-.33 and -.32) on both variates. Although thenegative loading was unexpected, the relative pattern of theRecreation/Leisure integration variable loadings is similar to thefactor loadings reported by McGrew, Bruininks, Thurlow, and Lewis (inpress). These findings suggest that these three recreation and leisurevariables may not represent a homogenous homogenous - homogeneous dimension. Thus, it might bemore appropriate to not include them in the same set in futuremultivariate analyses. [Tabular Data 5 Omitted] DISCUSSION The results of this investigation indicate that measures ofadaptive and maladaptive behavior from the ICAP are significantlyrelated to measures of community adjustment for people with mild tosevere degrees of retardation. Through the use of canonical correlationsprocedures, the combined Personal Living Skills, Community LivingSkills, and Social/Communication Living Skills clusters, and, to alesser extent, the Motor Skills cluster, were highly related (canonicalcorrelation = .74) with concurrent measures of community/economicintegration. Although not as strong combination of four adaptivebehavior clusters was also significantly related (canonical correlation= .44) with measures reflecting an individual's need for communitysupport services. These findings support a strong association betweenthe ICAP adaptive behavior clusters and successful integration in thecommunity, as defined by economic independence, independence in daytimeactivities and living arrangements, and independence from communitysupport services. These findings suggest that the ICAP adaptive behaviorclusters can provide useful information for program planning, decisionmaking, and program evaluation Program evaluation is a formalized approach to studying and assessing projects, policies and program and determining if they 'work'. Program evaluation is used in government and the private sector and it's taught in numerous universities. for people with retardation. Canonical correlations between the four adaptive behavior clustersand measures of social network and recreation/leisure integration,although significant, were much lower (.30 and .27). This suggests that,by themselves, the adaptive behavior measures are not stronglyassociated with the activity levels of people with retardation in socialand recreation/leisure activities in the community. Many social andleisure-recreation activities for persons with mental retardation may behighly structured and supervised su��per��vise?tr.v. su��per��vised, su��per��vis��ing, su��per��vis��esTo have the charge and direction of; superintend.[Middle English *supervisen, from Medieval Latin , leaving little opportunity for theexpression of preferences or the application of abilities. Otherenvironmental or personal competence variables need to be considered incombination with adaptive behavior measures when formulating programplans or making decisions related to these two important areas ofcommunity adjustment. The correlation magnitudes do not support makingindividual predictions in these two areas. The presence of significantcanonical correlations, however, suggests that adaptive behaviormeasures should be included in research that seeks to understand howdifferent personal competence and environmental variables interact incontributing to the social and recreation/leisure integration of peoplewith mental retardation. The stronger relation of measures of adaptive behavior withcommunity independence (community/economic integration and need forsupport variables) than with measures of social and recreation/leisureintegration likely reflects an interaction between the level of adaptivefunctioning and environmental variables. The generation of income andmanagement of one's own finances, freedom from support services,and involvement in more independent employment settings most likelyrequire higher levels of adaptive functioning. A person will most likelynot be placed in or hired for a wage-earning job, or manage personalfinances without assistance, if certain prerequisite pre��req��ui��site?adj.Required or necessary as a prior condition: Competence is prerequisite to promotion.n. skills do not existor are not possible to develop. Successful community adjustment in theseareas is more likely related to the person's level of adaptivefunctioning. In contrast, many people in this sample lived in special residences(e.g., group homes) where group social and recreation/leisure activitiestypically are organized by the residence staff for all clients in theresidence (Bruininks, Lewis, & Thurlow, 1990; Thurlow, Bruininks,& Lange, 1989; Thurlow, Bruininks, Wolman, & Steffens, 1989).Thus, all residents of a group home may take a bus to a baseball game,accompanied by staff, requiring only a minimal level of personal choiceor adaptive functioning for an individual to participate. This emphasison a minimal level of functioning would attenuate To reduce the force or severity; to lessen a relationship or connection between two objects.In Criminal Procedure, the relationship between an illegal search and a confession may be sufficiently attenuated as to remove the confession from the protection afforded by the any correlationbetween measures of adaptive functioning and extent of involvement insocial and recreation/leisure activities. Since the social andrecreation/leisure measures used in this investigation only assessed thefrequency of involvement, and not the actual degree of success orquality of experience in these areas, people with varying degrees ofadaptive behavior may have similar frequency of involvement because oftheir participation in organized group activities. This could explainthe significantly lower canonical correlations found between adaptivebehavior and social and recreation/leisure integration in the currentstudy. With recreation-leisure programs providing greater personalchoice and integrated options, relationships may increase betweenmeasures of adaptive behavior and these aspects of community adjustmentin future studies. Maladaptive behavior was found to be significantly related tocommunity/economic integration (canonical correlation = .44), need forsupport services (.34), and social network integration (.23). Therelatively low to moderate level of these canonical correlations,together with the lack of a significant relation in therecreation/leisure area, suggests a weaker relation between maladaptivebehavior and community adjustment than is typically reported in theliterature. Prior research has suggested a link between problembehaviors and decreased opportunities for personal development andsocial or community integration (Bruininks, Hill, Morreau, 1988; Hill& Bruininks, 1981, 1984). In addition, socially inappropriatebehaviors are believed to be highly instrumental in the occurrences ofinstitutionalization InstitutionalizationThe gradual domination of financial markets by institutional investors, as opposed to individual investors. This process has occurred throughout the industrialized world. (Maney, Pace, & Morrison, 1964; Spencer, 1976),reinstitutionalization (Hill & Bruininks, 1984; Keyes, Boroskin,& Ross, 1973; Pagel & Whitling, 1978; Sutter, Mayeda, Call,Yanagi, & Yee, 1980), and lowered job status (McCarver & Craig,1974; Schalock, Harper, & Carver carver/car��ver/ (kahr��ver) a tool for producing anatomic form in artificial teeth and dental restorations. carver (carving instrument),n , 1981). The weaker association inthis study may result from the relatively narrow range of maladaptivebehavior demonstrated by the subjects and the limited range of socialand recreation-leisure measures of community adjustment. Descriptive statistics descriptive statisticssee statistics. (Bruininks, Thurlow, McGrew, & Lewis,1990) for the three ICAP maladaptive behavior clusters, which have anormative nor��ma��tive?adj.Of, relating to, or prescribing a norm or standard: normative grammar.nor mean of zero and standard deviation of 10, revealed that onlythe subgroup sub��group?n.1. A distinct group within a group; a subdivision of a group.2. A subordinate group.3. Mathematics A group that is a subset of a group.tr.v. with severe retardation (n = 104) displayed a level ofmaladaptive behavior that consistently approached a value close to 1standard deviation below the mean (Externalized = -7.1, internalized =-10.1, Asocial = -11.5). The means for the other subgroups ranged from-0.9 to 1.5 (mild) and -8.6 to -4.0 (moderate). The possibility existsthat the maladaptive behavior clusters may display a stronger relationwith community adjustment measures in samples displaying greater rangesof problem behaviors. The combined adaptive/maladaptive analysis with community/economicintegration (Table 2) and need for support services (Table 3) providessupport for integrating the constructs of adaptive and maladaptivebehavior. This type of integration is used to generate two measures inthe ICAP, the Service Score and the Service Level. The ICAP ServiceScore is composed of a weighted combination of adaptive behavior andmaladaptive behavior, and ranges from 0 to 100 with correspondingService Levels ranging from 1 to 9 (Bruininks et al., 1986). These twoservice scores are intended to provide an overall measure of aperson's need for care, support, supervision, or training. Theconstruction of the Service Score was based on stepwise regression In statistics, stepwise regression includes regression models in which the choice of predictive variables is carried out by an automatic procedure.[1][2][3] procedures with levels of residential and daytime placement as thecriteria (Bruininks et al., 1986). The relative magnitude of theadaptive (.62 to .98) and maladaptive (.39 to .64) canonical loadings inTables 2 and 3 provide independent validation See validate. validation - The stage in the software life-cycle at the end of the development process where software is evaluated to ensure that it complies with the requirements. of the differentiallyweighted ICAP Service Score and related Service Level. The ICAP ServiceScore and Service Levels would appear to be useful indexes for programplanning and decision making related to a person's potential forsuccessful community adjustment as defined by community/economicintegration and need for support services. The current investigation indicates that the ICAP measures ofadaptive behavior, and to a lesser extent maladaptive behavior, provideimportant information for planning and evaluating essential aspects ofcommunity integration and adjustment for people with mental retardation.The inclusion of measures of adaptive and maladaptive behavior inassessment batteries for individuals with retardation appears to beimportant, not only for eligibility decisions, but for programmatic pro��gram��mat��ic?adj.1. Of, relating to, or having a program.2. Following an overall plan or schedule: a step-by-step, programmatic approach to problem solving.3. decision making, planning, training, and support strategies. The results of this investigation provide support for thecriterion-related validity of the ICAP adaptive and maladaptive behaviorclusters as useful measures in understanding aspects of communityadaptation and participation. Several limitations, however, should beaddressed in future research. The simultaneous collection of theadaptive/maladaptive and community adjustment information limits thegeneralizability of the results to concurrent predictions. Replicationof this study in a longitudinal lon��gi��tu��di��naladj.Running in the direction of the long axis of the body or any of its parts. context, where adaptive/maladaptivemeasures are administered before people with retardation make importanttransitions (e.g., leaving public school special education programs,exiting residential facilities), and where the community adjustmentmeasures are collected 1 or more years later, would provide importantinformation on predicting later community adjustment. Replication ofthis study in both concurrent and longitudinal frameworks with othersamples, some with a greater range of maladaptive behavior, is needed. In any future replication or cross-validation attention should begiven to the use of additional or different measures of communityadjustment. For example, in the areas of recreation/leisure integrationand social network, measures that reflect the quality of success anindividual experiences in these areas would add important information tothe current measures of friendships and frequency of recreation/leisureinvolvement. The addition of measures of other community adjustmentdimensions such as quality of life and personal satisfaction also issuggested. Finally, measures of other personal competencies (e.g.,physical/developmental, conceptual/academic, and social skills),together with adaptive and maladaptive behavior, are needed in studiesand examine the relations between personal competencies and communityadjustment. If conducted in a longitudinal framework that uses models ofboth personal competence (Greenspan, 1979, 1981a, 1981b; McGrew &Bruininks, 1990) and community adjustment (Bruininks et al., 1988;Halpern et al., 1986; McGrew, Bruininks, Thurlow, & Lewis, inpress), such research could provide critical insights into understandingthe relative validity The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter.Please help [ improve the introduction] to meet Wikipedia's layout standards. You can discuss the issue on the talk page. of personal competence measures as they relate topredicting successful community adjustment. In addition, such researchcould provide important information to guide the development of trainingand intervention to improve the range of choices, integration, andquality of life for persons with mental retardation. REFERENCESBruininks, R., Hill, B. & Morreau, L. (1988). 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Adaptive behavior in classificationand programming with students who are handicapped. St. Paul St. Paulas a missionary he fearlessly confronts the “perils of waters, of robbers, in the city, in the wilderness.” [N.T.: II Cor. 11:26]See : Bravery : MinnesotaDepartment of Education. Schalock, R., Harper, R., & Carver, G.(1981). Independent living placement. Five years later. American Journalof Mental Deficiency, 86, 170-177. Scheerenberger, R. (1983). A historyof mental retardation. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes. Spencer, D. (1976).New long-stay patients in a hospital for mental handicap mental handicapNounany intellectual disability resulting from injury to or abnormal development of the brainmentally handicapped adj . BritishJournal of Psychiatry psychiatry(səkī`ətrē, sī–), branch of medicine that concerns the diagnosis and treatment of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders, including major depression, schizophrenia, and anxiety. , 128, 467-470. Sutter, P., Mayeda, T., Call, T.,Yanagi, G., & Yee, S. (1980). Comparison of successful andunsucessful community placed mentally retarded persons. American Journalof Mental Deficiency, 85, 262-267. Thompson, B. (1984). Canonicalcorrelation analysis: Uses and interpretation. Sage University Paperseries on Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences, Series No.07-001. Beverly Hills Beverly Hills,city (1990 pop. 31,971), Los Angeles co., S Calif., completely surrounded by the city of Los Angeles; inc. 1914. The largely residential city is home to many motion-picture and television personalities. , CA: Sage. Thurlow, M., Bruininks, R., &Lange, C. (1989). Assessing post-school outcomes for students withmoderate to severe mental retardation (Project Report No. 89-1).Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, Department of EducationalPsychology. Thurlow, M., Bruininks, R., Wolman, C., & Steffens, K.(1989). Occupational and social status of persons with moderate, severe,and profound mental retardation after leaving school (Project Report No.89-3). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, Institute on CommunityIntegration. Woodcock, R. (1978). Development and standardization of theWoodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery. Allen, TX: DLM TeachingResources. Zigler, E., Balla, D., & Hodapp, R. (1984). On thedefinition and classification of mental retardation. American Journal ofMental Deficiency, 89, 215-230. KEVIN S. MCGREW (CEC (Central Electronic Complex) The set of hardware that defines a mainframe, which includes the CPU(s), memory, channels, controllers and power supplies included in the box. Some CECs, such as IBM's Multiprise 2000 and 3000, include data storage devices as well. MN Federation) isan Assistant Professor in the Department of Applied Psychology at St.Cloud State University in St. Cloud, Minnesota St. Cloud (IPA: /ˌseɪntˈklaʊd/) is a city in the U.S. state of Minnesota and the major population center in the state's central region. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 59,107. . ROBERT H. BRUININKS (CECMN Federation) is the Dean of the College of Education at the Universityof Minnesota, Minneapolis. MARTHA L. THURLOW (CEC MN Federation) is theAssistant to the Director at the Institute on Community Integration andthe Research and Training Center on Community Living, both theUniversity of Minnesota, Minneapolis.