Negotiating speech and language in the African Diaspora: politics of linguistic diversity.

Negotiating speech and language in the African Diaspora: politics of linguistic diversity. NEGOTIATING SPEECH AND LANGUAGE IN THE AFRICAN DIASPORA The African diaspora is the diaspora created by the movements and cultures of Africans and their descendants throughout the world, to places such as the Americas, (including the United States, Canada, the Caribbean, Central America, and South America) Europe and Asia. : THEPOLITICS OF LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY/ (BLACK ENGLISHES) "The men of Gilead said to him, Are you an Ephraiminite? If hesaid, No, They said to him, Then say Shibboleth Shibboleth(shĭb`ōlĕth), in the Bible, test word that the Gileadites made the Ephraimites pronounce. As Ephraimites could not say sh but only s ; and he said Sibboleth:for he could not pronounce it right. Then they seized him and slewhim...." Judges 12:6. SPEECH REFLECTS THE SOCIAL RELATIONS IN A SOCIETY The quote above describing the Biblical account of the battlebetween the Ephraimites and the Gileadites illustrates how pronunciationof one word, changed by the omission of the "h," sound servedto identify escaping Ephraimites who claimed to be Gileadites in orderto escape death. The Ephraimites' speech revealed their identity,and forty-two thousand of them were killed in this battle. Despite thedate and context of this example, speech and language are still used astools to identify, demarcate de��mar��cate?tr.v. de��mar��cat��ed, de��mar��cat��ing, de��mar��cates1. To set the boundaries of; delimit.2. To separate clearly as if by boundaries; distinguish: demarcate categories. , and at times to dominate and oppress op��press?tr.v. op��pressed, op��press��ing, op��press��es1. To keep down by severe and unjust use of force or authority: a people who were oppressed by tyranny.2. thosewithout power in various societies. How we speak and the languages we use serve to distinguish amongnationalities, social classes and groups, educational levels, and tosome degree, age and gender. History, culture, geography and otherenvironmental factors, as well as personal experiences, all influencewhat we say and how we say it. Speech reflects social relations in asociety, and social relations, in turn, shape/affect/determine howpeople speak as well as how they respond to various forms and patternsof speech. The languages or dialects spoken by the dominant groups in agiven society will be that of those accorded power and prestige. Burling Burling may refer to: Carroll Burling Daniel Burling Robbins Burling This page or section lists people with the surname Burling. If an internal link for a specific person referred you to this page, you may wish to add the given name(s) to that (1973, p. 27) reviews the source of a language'sstatus and prestige in the following: In a society like ours it may be inevitable that the language of those with money, education, and high social status comes to be regarded as the best. These are the people who often set the standards.... But if by some magic our class system were suddenly overturned, new forms of speech would surely acquire prestige. If, for instance, those who held positions of power and respect regularly used double negatives, while the humble members of the lower classes never did so, we can be confident that double negatives would soon begin to sound elegant, simply because elegant people used them. Lukia Koliussi (2004, p.107) observes: "Language is the mostimportant means of human interaction and social survival. Byunderstanding, inferring, and relaying meaning, we creatively negotiate,construct, reconstruct, and define the norms and rules by which we liveand the identities we either are 'assigned' by society orchoose to take in certain situations." How does the exercise ofpower to construct and define these societal norms affect students ofAfrican Africanpertaining to or originating in Africa.African buffaloincludes black Cape buffalo, red Congo buffalo and red-brown varieties from Abyssinia to Niger. See also buffalo. descent and what roles do educators and schooling play inmaintaining the linguistic status quo [Latin, The existing state of things at any given date.] Status quo ante bellum means the state of things before the war. The status quo to be preserved by a preliminary injunction is the last actual, peaceable, uncontested status which preceded the pending controversy. ? My goal in this article is toencourage educators and others to examine the links between attitudestowards speech and language of students of African descent and socialjustice. In addition to my graduate training in communication and myexperience as a communications consultant, I have researched Blacklinguistics extensively in order to write the course: "Black Speechand Language Communication Behaviors," which has been approved andis now being offered at this university. However, in this article, myexperiences as student, elementary school elementary school:see school. teacher, student teachersupervisor and professor in three cultural contexts are scaffoldedaround and used to illuminate research perspectives on the politics ofblack speech and language communication. SPEECH AND LANGUAGE SOCIALIZATION socialization/so��cial��iza��tion/ (so?shal-i-za��shun) the process by which society integrates the individual and the individual learns to behave in socially acceptable ways. so��cial��i��za��tionn. : MAINTAINING THE LINGUISTICSTATUS QUO Often during their formative formal and informal learningexperiences students become socialized to society's norms ordesignations/classifications of 'good" and 'bad'English. While most would agree that speech and language communicationin the classroom go beyond drumming the mechanics of grammar andlanguage use into students, scant attention is given to making visible"the power of language to construct subjectivity and social reality[which] makes it a site of both ideological and political struggle"(Macedo et. al. 2003, p. 48). Part of the ideological and politicalstruggle mentioned above is the reality that many students whose firstand whose home languages differ from their society's standard areviewed by schools as users of illicit speech. The latter is particularlytrue in postcolonial post��co��lo��ni��al?adj.Of, relating to, or being the time following the establishment of independence in a colony: postcolonial economics.societies where formerly enslaved or dominatedpopulations' speech and languages reflect their histories ofoppression. The Roles of Education and Schooling in Maintaining the LinguisticStatus Quo: Schools as Sites of Struggle and Contestation Terry Meier states: "It is difficult to talk about BlackLanguage/Ebonics in a meaningful way without simultaneously talkingabout racism" (1998, p. 120). It is therefore important thatteachers are aware of the role of schools as more than sites ofknowledge transmission. Macedo et. al. (2000, p. 40) identify: Schools as sites of struggle and contestation that reproduce the dominant culture and ideology, as well as what is perceived as legitimate language/knowledge, make use of their institutional power to either affirm or deny a learner's language, and thus his or her lived experiences and culture. Additionally, schools are not simply static institutions that mirror the social order or reproduce the dominant ideology. They are active agents in the very construction of the social order and the dominant ideology. Failure to acknowledge support for Ebonics from organizations suchas the American Linguistics Association, the American Association forApplied Linguistics Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real life problems. Some of the academic fields related to applied linguistics are education, linguistics, psychology, anthropology, and sociology. and Teachers of English to Speakers of OtherLanguages is a casualty in the ideological war over speech and languagein American society (Rickford and Rickford, 2000, p. 175; Perry andDelpit, 1998, p. 160). Rickford and Rickford note that Congress approveda $1 million grant to research techniques "for tapping thelinguistic and cultural resources of black students in order to enhancetheir school performance" (2000, p. 175). Despite information tothe contrary, Myths and misconceptions about language and negative attitudestowards language diversity are fostered in the school and perpetuated inthe general populace by the public school experience (Pooley, 1974).Schools and teachers are seen as guardians of the national tongue.Condemned as immoral, ignorant, and inferior are all those who departfrom the idealized norm of standard English which, as Pooley'sresearch (1969) so powerfully demonstrates, teachers themselves preachbut do not practice.... Research on sociolinguistics sociolinguistics,the study of language as it affects and is affected by social relations. Sociolinguistics encompasses a broad range of concerns, including bilingualism, pidgin and creole languages, and other ways that language use is influenced by contact among in the educationprocess has been most fruitful and convincing in uncovering underlyingattitudes about language.... In the educational context, negativelinguistic attitudes are reflected in the institutional policies andpractices that become educationally dysfunctional for BlackEnglish-speaking children. Research on language attitudes consistentlyindicates that teachers believe Black English-speaking youngsters arenonverbal non��ver��bal?adj.1. Being other than verbal; not involving words: nonverbal communication.2. Involving little use of language: a nonverbal intelligence test. and possess limited vocabularies. They are perceived to beslow learners or uneducable; their speech is unsystematic and needsconstant correction and improvement (Smitherman, 140-141). Farley (2005, pp. 376-377) attributes labeling black children as"slow" or "illiterate" because of their use of BlackEnglish Black Englishn.1. See African American Vernacular English.2. Any of the nonstandard varieties of English spoken by Black people throughout the world. to "Educators' misconceptions." He states:"Other researchers have found that teachers expected lowerachievement, intelligence, and reading success from students who usedBlack English. This misperception mis��per��ceive?tr.v. mis��per��ceived, mis��per��ceiv��ing, mis��per��ceivesTo perceive incorrectly; misunderstand.mis is often compounded in white or middleclass environments where the norm is Standard English because Blackchildren feel inhibited and become withdrawn." Dandy (1991, pp.8-9) corroborates the findings above and provides results from bothShuy's survey of teachers' attitudes about the language of"disadvantaged" children and findings from Cunningham'sstudy of 189 teachers from four geographic regions. Shuy recommends "content courses to help teachers solvelanguage differences/problems in their classrooms." Dandy relatesboth Shuy and Cunningham's similar findings: "Teachers need tobe adequately trained to understand the dialects of the children theyteach, to recognize meaning equivalence, to learn how systematic variousdialects can be, so that they can develop sensitivity towardcommunicating with the language/dialect different child. teachers mustlearn the acceptance of Black dialect as a complex grammatical system... it is the responsibility of teacher training institutions to see toit that they [teachers] are taught" (1991, p. 6). My personal and professional experiences make issues of speech andlanguage especially urgent and compelling. Our efforts to develop a justsociety must include critical examination of our attitudes towardsspeech and language, as well as commitment to addressing linguisticbarriers to academic achievement. Certainly this issue is also importantfor speakers of other languages and dialects, but in my current work asa professor of African American Studies African American studies (also known as Black studies and/or Africana studies) is an interdisciplinary academic field devoted to the study of the history, culture, and politics of African Americans. , my focus is on the speech ofthose of us who comprise the African Diaspora. Some of my earliest memories of speech and language issues are ofmy schooling in Jamaica. I remember a classroom with no walls, just thezinc roof to shelter us from the elements. We seven year olds intensely,loudly, and emphatically repeated in typical singsong sing��song?n.1. Verse characterized by mechanical regularity of rhythm and rhyme.2. A monotonously rising and falling inflection of the voice.adj.Monotonous in vocal inflection or rhythm. fashionrecitations such as: "Hannibal crossed the Alps! Hannibal crossedthe Alps! Thousands of elephants Hannibal had, when Hannibal crossed theAlps! Thousands of elephants stumbled and died, when Hannibal crossedthe Alps ...!" I've forgotten the other verses over the yearsnow, but I remember that subsequent verses discuss the demise of theelephants as they fell off the mountain to their deaths. We were taughtto stress the appropriate sounds as precisely as clients in speechconsults would be coached to do. After earning a master's degree in communications, I workedwith experienced and highly skilled speech pathologists and othercommunication specialists developing exercises and other trainingmaterials to help corporate employees "professionalize pro��fes��sion��al��ize?tr.v. pro��fes��sion��al��ized, pro��fes��sion��al��iz��ing, pro��fes��sion��al��iz��esTo make professional.pro��fes " theirspeech and code switch between various languages, dialects, and StandardEnglish. It was in the middle of this work that I remembered mychildhood recitations and noticed how the focus was on soundsparticularly suited for Jamaican speech. Typical speakers of theJamaican language would remove the "H" from" Hannibal butplace it before the "A" in Alps. Thus, "Anibal"crossed the "Halps." The "th" in thousands would bereduced to "t," resulting in, "tousands." Although we recited this and other now forgotten exercises withgreat exuberance, no one bothered to tell us that the purpose of thisexercise was to help standardize our speech. Clearly, rote learning rote learningn.Learning or memorization by repetition, often without an understanding of the reasoning or relationships involved in the material that is learned. wasde rigueur de ri��gueur?adj.Required by the current fashion or custom; socially obligatory.[French : de, of + rigueur, rigor, strictness. in the Jamaica of the 1950s. Although I have benefited fromthis training, I still have serious misgivings about the null curriculumand the colonial education I experienced. Speech became more complicated as I grew into the pre-teen years. Inow lived in Kingston with my very prim and proper godmother, Mrs.Lawson, who only used the Jamaican language in rare moments whenjesting jest?n.1. A playful or amusing act; a prank. See Synonyms at joke.2. A frolicsome or frivolous mood: spoken in jest.3. An object of ridicule; a laughingstock.4. . She, like some other Jamaicans, affected a British soundingaccent, although she had never visited Great Britain Great Britain,officially United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, constitutional monarchy (2005 est. pop. 60,441,000), 94,226 sq mi (244,044 sq km), on the British Isles, off W Europe. The country is often referred to simply as Britain. . Mrs. Lawson wouldhit the "t" in "viT-a-min" with profound force, and,by today's speech standards, made quite a spectacle of herself,when pronouncing the simplest word. When the professor of theprofessional speech-writing course which I took as part of mymaster's degree in communication at the University of Illinois University of Illinois may refer to: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (flagship campus) University of Illinois at Chicago University of Illinois at Springfield University of Illinois system It can also refer to: hinted at "affected speech," I knew its origin. SPEECH PATHOLOGY speech pathologyn.The science concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of functional and organic speech defects and disorders. Also called speech-language pathology. ?: PRIVILEGING THE SPEECH OF THE POWERFUL IN THEAFRICAN DIASPORA Linguistic Hegemony in the African Diaspora I moved to Bermuda just in time to begin high school anddiscovered--through interacting with my classmates--that many Bermudiansesteemed Americans highly, but had little regard for Jamaicans. Therewere two foreigners in our school, one was an American boy; I, ofcourse, was the Jamaican. One can imagine beginning the challenging highschool years in an environment where Jamaicans were sometimes derisively de��ri��sive?adj.Mocking; jeering.de��risive��ly adv.de��ri addressed as "West Indians" or referred to as "Chigger chigger,minute, six-legged, reddish larva of the harvest mite, one of various red bugs widely distributed throughout the world and common in the S United States. foots." Most of my Bermudian classmates fervently believed they hadno accent. To them their speech was the norm, while mine was thenonstandard non��stan��dard?adj.1. Varying from or not adhering to the standard: nonstandard lengths of board.2. deviation. My mother who lived in Bermuda for over 30 years shared thefollowing example of a speech event with Bermudian friends whichillustrates our linguistic differences. "I said spell rat,"said mama to five year old Judy. Judy looked puzzled and quizzically quiz��zi��cal?adj.1. Suggesting puzzlement; questioning.2. Teasing; mocking: "His face wore a somewhat quizzical almost impertinent air"Lawrence Durrell. repeated, "rat?" "Rat?' while looking inquiringly ather grandmother, Aunt Inez, for help. Aunt Inez responded, "Judy,she said spell "Raaaat," "oh raaaaaaaaaaat" saidJudy as she now quickly spelled the word. In Bermudian speech,"eggs" become "eeeeeeeeeegs." This was definitely aspeech pattern I did not want to emulate. At fifteen years old, upon the urging of my closest Bermudianclassmates the Santucci twins, Norma and Naomi, we left Bermuda for aboarding school in Mandeville, Jamaica Mandeville is the capital of Jamaica's Manchester parish. In 2005 the town had an estimated population of 50,000 and including the immediate suburbs within a radius of 16 km (10 miles) the total population is about 72,000. . The twins left to attend schoolin England soon after we arrived, while I remained for four years tocomplete two years of high school and two years of college. In additionto the many Jamaicans, there were students from the Bahamas, Bermuda,Haiti, Santo Domingo Santo Domingo, pueblo, United StatesSanto Domingo(sän'tə dəmĭng`gō), pueblo (1990 pop. 2,866), Sandoval co., N central N.Mex., on the Rio Grande; founded c.1700 after earlier pueblos were destroyed by floods. , Argentina and other nationalities some of whomattended our school only to learn English. Before long I achieved thedistinction of being contemptuously referred to as: "Jamaicanforeigner" by some contentious Jamaican classmates. They wereannoyed because to them, I did not sound like a Jamaican. Mypronunciation was definitely not Bermudian, though. I do not rememberwhen, but some time after I began high school in Bermuda, I had changedmy speech--not to sound like the Bermudians, but not exactly with aJamaican lilt either. As an undergraduate at DePaul University Coordinates: DePaul University[1] is a private institution of higher education and research in Chicago, Illinois, USA. majoring inCommunication/English, I was puzzled as to why some professors circledor highlighted words on my otherwise excellent papers. The work wasdemanding, and I am certain that I would not have graduated magna cumlaude cum lau��de?adv. & adj.With honor. Used to express academic distinction: graduated cum laude; 25 cum laude graduates. had I not discovered the reason, because none of my professorsoffered any explanations. Furthermore, like some students, early in myacademic journey I was too intimidated to question instructors'markings. When I discovered the reason for their notations, I beganwriting "color" instead of "colour,""tire" instead of "tyre" and so on. I was alsopenalized for separating words British style, but I had no idea thesedifferences even existed. Was I supposed to know this information beforecoming to college, I wondered? Later, I puzzled over whether instructorshad attributed my language differences to cultural difference or todeficits, and I also wondered if they themselves were aware of theselinguistic differences. At home, I was suspect to my son and my husband when I spokeJamaican language with my mother. My explanations of how Spanishspeaking or other bilinguals or bidialectals speak their natal languagesor dialects at home and Standard English at work, failed to stop thelooks that seemed to say, "hypocrite!" There was tremendousconflict because choosing to speak Standard English is often taken bysome inside our speech communities as rejection of our common languageand culture and simultaneously preference of the macroculture. Throughout most of my life, I have both accepted and rejected theprevailing view that our Jamaican language or any African Diasporan modeof speech was substandard or "bad English," and that StandardEnglish was the measure of intellect and achievement. I knew StandardEnglish, but I felt uncomfortable and unnatural conversing with my100-year-old Jamaican grandfather and other older Jamaican relatives inany other dialect than the Jamaican Language. This ambivalence becameshame when I had to select one dialect when the audience consisted ofboth Americans and Jamaicans, for example. The latter underlines the role of language in relationships.Relationships are created and sustained by language which is part of aparticular culture. When Papa, my grandfather, and I spoke the samelanguage we enjoyed fellowship encased en��case?tr.v. en��cased, en��cas��ing, en��cas��esTo enclose in or as if in a case.en��casement n. in and marked by a familiarityunmediated Adj. 1. unmediated - having no intervening persons, agents, conditions; "in direct sunlight"; "in direct contact with the voters"; "direct exposure to the disease"; "a direct link"; "the direct cause of the accident"; "direct vote"direct by different grammatical structure and pronunciation dictatedby others outside of our society. We were also able to preserve the tiesthat link us. Yet, there is always the concern that others are stillthinking "hypocrite!" I did not encounter empowering information on language hegemony andequality for some time. It was ultimately links between the experiencesfrom my speech communication consulting practice--particularly withAfrican American African AmericanMulticulture A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa.See Race. clients--my doctoral research, and my own journey onthe road to speech and language wholeness that has led me to opposelinguistic domination. The answer to my desperate prayer for employment to help finance mydoctoral studies resulted in work as a part-time speech communicationsconsultant. The communications-consulting firm held a training contractwith a large Midwestern corporation with a diverse workforce, and Ilearned as much as I taught this clientele. I enjoyed working one-on-onewith African Americans, Ukrainian, Mexican American, Guatemalan,Egyptian, Anglo-Americans, Chinese, as well as clients from other ethnicgroups. My dissertation study examined features of the formal andinformal education of African American clients who were learning toattain fluency in Standard English in this workplace-training program. Ilearned that our experiences with language were similar in many ways. As the trainer in this, program I had to face my own issues withspeech and language and those of the clients as well. Delivering thetraining was rewarding and fulfilling, and the personal interactionswere stimulating. Part of the dynamics of my work was continuous tensionbetween being accepting of speech diversity, yet acknowledging thatpower relations in society constrain our communication choices anddemand knowledge of and facility with the language of power. Underunequal power relations, our speech identifies us as the'other,' and allows us to be distinguished for unequaltreatment/discrimination, or ridicule. It would be helpful to examinehow individuals respond to pressures to conform to Verb 1. conform to - satisfy a condition or restriction; "Does this paper meet the requirements for the degree?"fit, meetcoordinate - be co-ordinated; "These activities coordinate well" dominant societalspeech patterns, ranges of responses to new speech communities, why somedecide to change their speech while others do not, and the extent ofchange. It is rarely in the interest of those who exercise political andeconomic power and control access to society's resources to fightfor linguistic equity. Addressing these issues in the curriculum couldbe both illuminating and transformational. MYTHS, MISCONCEPTIONS, DIS AND MIS-INFORMATION ABOUT AFRICANDIASPORAN SPEECH Just as hazardous as using one's speech as a basis fordiscrimination, are misinformation mis��in��form?tr.v. mis��in��formed, mis��in��form��ing, mis��in��formsTo provide with incorrect information.mis and the disinformation dis��in��for��ma��tion?n.1. Deliberately misleading information announced publicly or leaked by a government or especially by an intelligence agency in order to influence public opinion or the government in another nation: about thespeech and language use of people in the African Diaspora. When I taughta multicultural education course for preservice teachers, a student ofIrish descent-who was a speech pathology major-- remarked that AfricanAmericans speak the way they do simply because they want to be contrary.I responded by questioning how African Americans in disparate locations,unknown to one another, emerged speaking a similar dialect. The studenthad no explanation for her claim. I ended my discussion thinking, howpowerful blacks must be to achieve a feat such as speaking a similarlanguage in different parts of the nation without having met oneanother. A number of these students became indignant at my suggestionthat they learn Spanish. The most vociferous student in this classinformed me that no one "catered" to her parents when theyemigrated from Europe, and therefore, she would not cater to Hispanics. These and the other experiences that I will relate convinced methat students' attitudes and exposure to language difference shouldconcern us as responsible educators in a multiethnic society. It iscritical that students learn that people do not speak particulardialects and languages simply because of their skin color, and thatpower and privilege are imbricated imbricated/im��bri��cat��ed/ (im��bri-kat?id) overlapping like shingles. imbricatedoverlapping like shingles or roof slates or tiles. in how we value the language ofvarious social groups. The link between language hegemony andstudents' behaviors is apparent, in that students' actionsseem to infer that learning the language of a subordinated groupascribes power to that group which simultaneously diminishes thedominant group's stature. The language use I observed while supervising student teachersduring their periods of instruction in an all African Americanelementary school on Chicago's south side is another example whichgave me the impetus to address black speech and language early in myacademic career. Some of these preservice teachers did not use StandardEnglish while they were instructing the students. A student teacher ofPolish descent addressed the children using language such as,"gimme gim��me?InformalContraction of give me.adj. SlangDemanding material things or especially money; acquisitive: today's gimme society; tired of gimme letters.n. them books." The student teachers of African descentwere unaware that they were using Black English. These student teachers were unconscious of their language choices,and both the elementary school and the university had made no specialprovisions to help students achieve proficiency in Standard English.This elementary school's speech pathologist believed it was futilefor the children in that south side African American community to learnStandard English because using Standard English would make littledifference to their futures. Tchudi and Mitchell (1989, p. 255) agree: It is important to realize, as James Sledd has suggested, that teaching standard English by whatever method will not automatically open new doors to children. Often the lack of standard English is merely used as an excuse for rejecting people on racial, ethnic, or other grounds. Further, language is learned in response to needs felt by the language user. Unless students recognize a real opportunity to participate in a standard English community, they will not willingly learn its dialect. While the above is valid, I agree with those who believe knowledgeof Standard English removes its absence from being one more potentialobstacle to the survival and advancement of those who can least affordthese hindrances (Stokes In Alvarez & Kilker, 1986; Delpit, 1988).Rickford and Rickford (2000, p. 9) concur that African Americans mustmaster Standard English. But they also believe that "Ebonics,African American Vernacular English African American Vernacular Englishn. Abbr. AAVEAny of the nonstandard varieties of English spoken by African Americans. Also called Black English, Black English Vernacular, Black Vernacular English, , Black English, Spoken Soul orwhatever you want to call the informal variety spoken by many blackpeople plays an essential, valuable role in our lives and in the life ofthe larger society to which we all belong." In his article in which he considers whether a human rightsapproach to language planning This article is about the field of language planning & policy. See Constructed language for details on the creation of planned or artificial languages.Language planning and policy promotes educational equity fordiverse student populations Tove Skutnabb-Kangas contends: Children should learn new languages, including the dominantlanguages that most minority children obviously want and need to learn,in addition to their own languages. Formal education that issubtractive sub��trac��tive?adj.1. Producing or involving subtraction.2. Of or being a color produced by light passing through or reflecting off a colorant, such as a filter or pigment, that absorbs certain wavelengths and transmits or , that is, that teaches children (something of) a dominantlanguage at the cost of their first language, is genocidal and turnsdominant languages, for instance, English, Chinese, Russian, Hindi, orHausa, into killer languages. Educational LHRs, [language human rights]which guarantee additive language learning, are needed to preventlinguistic genocide and for linguistic diversity to be maintained onearth. (In Ricento, 2002, p. 181). UNDERSTANDING THE DOMINATION AND CONTROL OF SUBJUGATED sub��ju��gate?tr.v. sub��ju��gat��ed, sub��ju��gat��ing, sub��ju��gates1. To bring under control; conquer. See Synonyms at defeat.2. To make subservient; enslave. LANGUAGES Linguistic Prejudice: Disguised Race, Class or Ethnic Prejudice Why is there so much contestation and intrigue over Black English?In discussing the ideology of language Winford (2003, p. 35) makes thepoint that "Linguistic prejudice, as we all know, is simply race orclass or ethnic prejudice in a subtle guise. A socially realisticlinguistics simply acknowledges that fact. Until we persuade the generalpublic, the teachers, the politicians, and the policy makers of thatfact, languages like AAVE will continue to be languages that dare notspeak their names." The latter has already been stated by otherssuch as educator Nona Stokes. Stokes (In Alvarez & Kilker, 1986)believes: "the majority of white America does not accept BlackEnglish, but not because of the language itself ... because of thepeople who speak it, which is racism." Dandy (1991, p. 41) explains that: "Being black is a socialstigma Social stigma is severe social disapproval of personal characteristics or beliefs that are against cultural norms. Social stigma often leads to marginalization.Examples of existing or historic social stigmas can be physical or mental disabilities and disorders, as well as in this country, so the sounds and structures of the people whouse the language are also considered by some as inferior. Some forms aremore highly stigmatized than others." As a way to justify keepingAfrican Americans subservient sub��ser��vi��ent?adj.1. Subordinate in capacity or function.2. Obsequious; servile.3. Useful as a means or an instrument; serving to promote an end. , their language, as well as other featuresof their culture, have been socially constructed as inferior, when as ameans of communication it works just as well as any other languagesystem. According to according toprep.1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.2. In keeping with: according to instructions.3. Winford (2003, p. 35, 56), " Linguisticdomination simultaneously entails cultural supremacy. Those who are ableto gain control over meanings and conventions of discourse are also ableto promote their views of the world, their norms, their values andultimately their interests. Those who are denied the right to use theirlanguage in all forms of social life are hindered in expressingthemselves, in shaping reality, in drawing attention to their needs, andin commanding support from others." Issues of power are clearlyimbricated in whose language is deemed valuable in a society. Recognition of the Validity of Black Speech and LanguageCommunication Black speech and language have been recognized as valid systems ofcommunication for some time (Stewart, 1969; Hecht, 1993; Perry andDelpit, 1998; Van Keulen, et. al.; 1998; Berger, 1991). Speechpathologist and vocal coach Mary Berger (1991, p. xi) lists linguistssuch as Lorenzo D. Turner, William A. Stewart and J. L. Dillard"whose exhaustive scholarly research on Black English ...demonstrates that Black English is as systematic and rule-governed inits pronunciation and grammar as Standard English." Berger describes Standard English as "the most widely acceptedand socially prestigious English dialect; it is used professionally andacademically; [but] "is no better or worse linguistically than anyother rule-governed English dialect (p. xiii)." According toWinford, "It is evident to all linguists that AAVE and othervarieties of New World Black English are legitimate, rule-governedsystems of communication--true manifestations of the human faculty oflanguage. But it is equally clear that they are subject to extreme formsof linguistic prejudice, rooted in ideologies and belief systems, whichhave no basis in linguistic fact, or arise from one-sided interpretationof the facts" (2003, p. 22). There are similarities between the use of the Jamaican languageused mainly by the largely poor black majority in Jamaica and the use ofBlack English by African Americans. Knowledge and research on blackspeech and language that could enlighten and move us beyond deficit andeven difference perspectives are being investigated. Unfortunately, theinformation is rarely discussed or disseminated. Brunious (1998, p. 177)reports that: Recent work in descriptive linguistics has found links that associate the development of various Black English dialects to West African languages. Black English dialects, with historical resemblances to Caribbean and West African varieties of English (Dillard, 1972) have a form and structure of their own. Linguist Carmen Tolhurst (1996) contends that Black English includes unique vocabulary elements, various phonological features that systematically replace certain English consonants, and a different, more fully developed verbal system with tense and aspect features that are not found in Standard English dialects. If we subscribe to the "deficit" theory of language, which dialect would be deemed deficient on these terms? First, it must be noted that these differences are part of a systematic pattern in Black English, and secondly, that they have correspondences in other languages commonly considered "full" languages--e.g., Japanese, Spanish, etc. William Stewart's (1969) discussion of the relationshipbetween language use and educational achievements of many AfricanAmerican students should cause concern and also could inform studentssuch as those who enrolled in the multicultural education course Imentioned earlier. Stewart observes: That the Negro speech of a given region and social class may differ from the white speech of even the same region and a comparable social class is now understood to be the result, not of physiological or mental differences between Negroes and whites, but rather of the interrelationship between language history and American social structure.... once this is understood it should become apparent that language differences, as opposed to language deficits, may well account for most of the chronic difficulty which so many lower class Negro children have with standard English in the classroom and, later, on the job (1969, p. 167). In Stewart's "once this is understood," mentionedabove lies the rub, because without information, understanding cannotoccur. Linguistic domination of African Diasporic speech is rarelyaddressed with any rigor rigor/rig��or/ (rig��er) [L.] chill; rigidity.rigor mor��tis? the stiffening of a dead body accompanying depletion of adenosine triphosphate in the muscle fibers. ; however; there is vigor in reportingsensational stories such as the Oakland School Board debate, but norigorous efforts to share the facts underlying these linguistic issues. THE SILENCE OF THE SCHOOLS: IGNORING THE CHALLENGES WHILEPENALIZING OUR SPEECH Many African American students, like the preservice teachersmentioned earlier, for example, are not receiving the help with StandardEnglish they need in school, and consequently their academic achievementand careers are affected. Few instructors have the time or thepreparation to address these matters, and others do not care to performwhat is considered remedial instruction. I do know firsthand howdifficult this job is for instructors. However, we must address theissue as a societal obligation by viewing the appropriate assistance forthese students as part of the debt America owes the descendants of itsformer slaves. Rather than an exclusive focus on recruiting studentsuniversities refer to as "quality students," money and otherresources must be allocated to train those students that want and needhigher education. It would be helpful if the students themselves were made aware ofhow their speech is perceived and evaluated by others in society. Irecall a student in a mixture of exasperation, doubt, and defiancequestioning the existence and definition of Black English in a mannerthat revealed his disbelief that there was any such thing. Hisconversation ended abruptly, however, when a number of his classmatesindicated to him that he was indeed speaking Black English. A client Iinterviewed for my dissertation study discussed her perceptions of howthe Chicago Public Schools Chicago Public Schools, commonly abbreviated as CPS by local residents and politicians, is a school district that controls over 600 public elementary and high schools in Chicago, Illinois. handled her language training: I didn't know it was a black thing and a standard thing. I thought I was speaking Standard English. I didn't know I was lacking in my speech until someone pointed it out. I don't know how other people feel, but if you point it out to me I want to correct it. I won't know unless someone points something out. I didn't know I was speaking black dialect. I thought I was speaking pretty good finding out that I can't even say the word ' ask' right. I'm sayin' ' axe' and nobody ever told me. Nobody pointed out the difference between the two until look, I'm almost 40 years old.... If you see someone tryin' to better themselves wouldn't you try to help, and especially if that person's putting forth an effort improving wouldn't you try to help that person kinda motivate that person? Another of my study's participants added, "They have noteducated the children correctly. The only way that a blackprofessional--and they're up talking professionally is because theyfound out. Someone told them or they heard themselves and they were ableto improve themselves, and you can tell, or they went to a school wherethis is taught correctly where it was not a segregated school. If it wasan all-black school, no." LANGUAGE AND IDENTITY: INTERNALIZING NEGATIVE PERCEPTIONS OF BLACKENGLISH Self image is a casualty of society's negative perceptions ofBlack English. I remember the ambivalence of clients who tried to mastercode switching from Black English to Standard English, whilesimultaneously trying to deal with the baggage that theircommunity's speech had been judged deficient. No matter how often Iaddressed the myth that my client Janet did not speak Black Englishbecause of her "lazy tongue," from time to time, she continuedslapping her mouth as a reprimand REPRIMAND, punishment. The censure which in some cases a public office pronounces against an offender. 2. This species of punishment is used by legislative bodies to punish their members or others who have been guilty of some impropriety of conduct towards them. to her "lazy tongue" whenshe "slipped" into Black English. Similar beliefs, whichdenigrate den��i��grate?tr.v. den��i��grat��ed, den��i��grat��ing, den��i��grates1. To attack the character or reputation of; speak ill of; defame.2. the value of our languages throughout the Diaspora, illustratethe effectiveness of the ideology that has shaped our views of languagein our society. Getting both African Americans and African Jamaicans toaccept the ideology of their inferiority has worked well as some of usrefer to our "bad hair" and our "bad English." Loretta Brunious (1998, p. 177) locates Janet's belief in"the misguided deficit theory of language [which] shames childrenwho speak Black English, and when children are deemed to be"linguistically deficient," it is not a far jump for them toperceive themselves as inferior, inadequate, and powerless. Children whoare shamed about their language soon become ashamed of themselves."Tchudi and Mitchell's (1989, p. 255) analysis also links languageoppression and self esteem: "Predators can and do use dialectdifferences to exploit and oppress, because ordinary people can be madeto doubt their own value and to accept subservience sub��ser��vi��ent?adj.1. Subordinate in capacity or function.2. Obsequious; servile.3. Useful as a means or an instrument; serving to promote an end. if they can be madeto despise the speech of their fathers." Speech and language are the means through which we come to know theworld and ourselves; and rejection of an individual's speech isperceived as rejection of the person himself/herself. Faith Lintonaddresses this issue in the Jamaica Gleaner: "My language is animportant part of my identity. Human beings need to be affirmed in everyarea and aspect of their personal identity, be it in their racialcharacteristics, family and social background, religious beliefs ortheir language. When you denigrate my language, you denigrate me. Whenyou describe my way of speaking as a non-language it suggests that I ama non-person, not quite in the same category as those who speak'properly' "(Linton, 2004). Some of the African American women I interviewed for mydissertation on their use of Black English revealed their paradoxicalposition brought on by their need to learn and use Standard English tosurvive economically and gain acceptance at work. Yet, there isunderlying resentment that having to use Standard English meansacceptance of inequality in American society. Yvette believessubconscious resentment to learning Standard English might actuallyresult in unconscious resistance to learning Standard English. Thelatter is largely because of the disrespect associated with our ownlanguage, and also because of what learning Standard English says aboutour position in this society. There is frequent interplay and tensionbetween these two positions, which I understand and share. Within thecorporation my clients often did not get as much practice as they couldspeaking standard dialect because inside their work units, away fromcustomer contact, they often speak Black English among themselves."Perhaps factors such as linguistic and cultural resistance play agreater role in the acquisition of standard English than the mereability to link sound and symbol" (Macedo et. al., p. 86, 2003). STANDARD ENGLISH AND EMPLOYMENT FOR SPEAKERS OF BLACK SPEECH ANDLANGUAGE An important problematic of the linguistic status quo is that thefailure to teach speakers of Black English Standard English affectstheir employment opportunities. J. L. Dillard (1972) indicates that the"failure to provide adequate information about Black English is amajor hindrance to the educational system, although research into AfroAmerican language patterns was not initiated to resolve educationalproblems" (In Brunious, 1998, p. 177). Babich (1987, p. 92)maintains that "students are penalized or rewarded according to thedialect in which they communicate." Mitchell Duneier Mitchell Duneier is an American sociologist currently Professor of Sociology at Princeton University and regular Visiting Distinguished Professor of Sociology at the City University of New York, Graduate Center. [1]. , author of Slim's Table interviewed a blackfemale resident of the Chicago Housing Authority The Chicago Housing Authority (CHA) is a public housing authority focusing on public housing in the city of Chicago, founded in 1937.It has built a number of public housing projects over the years. who wanted to leave theprojects and pursue the American dream, but she was reportedly hinderedby her inadequate command of standard English. Andrea invested in posthigh-school education at Robert Morris Business College, but despite herefforts to acquire training, she failed to pass the test to become aword processor when she applied at KMZ KMZ KamikazeKMZ Keyhole Markup Language, Zipped where she now works. Instead, shewas hired for a clerical position that requires limited grammatical andspelling skills. Duneier notes that: Without a command of Standard English, workers like Andrea Ellington have diminishing job prospects in the deindustrialized working world. While it is true that Black English is a suitable language for certain purposes and carries a great deal of standing in many places, in legal documents it carries no standing. And in all of those offices where success depends on the production of written material, it has no standing either (1994, p. 12). Duneier (1994) ties the issue of the use of Black English to theschool achievement and job performance of African Americans. He remarksthat Andrea's "greatest difficulty came from interpretingspoken English, a process that often hinders school performance forchildren who do not speak Standard English" (p. 12). An interestingobservation Duneier makes is that even black women at KMZ who masteredStandard English and corporate culture did not advance much in theirjobs and did not feel sufficiently challenged by their work. He mentionsthat these conditions create disaffected workers. The issues mentioned above are also applicable and relevant to theJamaican language scene. The Bible Society an association for securing the multiplication and wide distribution of the Bible.See also: Bible of the West Indies'(BSWI BSWI Bible Society of the West Indies (Kingston, Jamaica)) launch of the "Krismos Stori,"--Scriptures in theJamaican language--has sparked the contentious controversy that eruptsfrequently over speech and language in Jamaica. Just as with BlackEnglish, discussions on the validity and the use of the Jamaicanlanguage, referred to as patois pat��ois?n. pl. pat��ois1. A regional dialect, especially one without a literary tradition.2. a. A creole.b. Nonstandard speech.3. The special jargon of a group; cant. , seem to ignore the reality that thelanguage is the first and primary means of communication of most of thepopulation, and is universally understood by all Jamaicans.Conversations about our conceptions of what our language represents tous, why we feel as we do about the language and its use, and how we canenhance equal facility in standard English are rare. In his speech on education before the Jamaican Parliament inOctober 2003, Jamaican prime minister, P. J. Patterson remarked that"the ability to speak English in today's world is one of ourcompetitive advantages in terms of communication and economicdevelopment." Patterson also addressed the pervasiveness of theJamaican Language: "I think we have to face the fact that theteaching of English language English language,member of the West Germanic group of the Germanic subfamily of the Indo-European family of languages (see Germanic languages). Spoken by about 470 million people throughout the world, English is the official language of about 45 nations. at every level now has to be approached asif you are teaching a foreign language. In the daily exchanges on theradio, on television, English is the exception rather than therule." Stewart similarly concluded in 1969 that "the learningof Standard English by speakers of Negro dialect is more like foreignlanguage learning than it is like first language learning" (p.168). TEACHING STANDARD ENGLISH TO SPEAKERS OF BLACK ENGLISH: REVISITINGTHE DEBATE Jamaica's Prime Minister describes a position that wasunpopular to many Black Americans in the 60s, but which could improvethe mastery of Standard English and may result in better standardizedtest scores. Duneier (1994, p. 12) reviews the 1960s debate on teachingAfrican-American students Standard English. In the 1960s, when some linguists suggested that a quasi-foreign language approach might be needed to teach black children Standard English, there was so much resistance that experiments to test this idea never went far. It was offensive to many blacks to be told that they spoke a foreign language. Twenty years later, the problems have worsened, and we still don't know whether that approach would work. Perhaps the failure to teach English grammar explicitly--the way a foreign language like Spanish is taught--most hurts those whose grammar is most different. 'Whether or not Standard English is taught to African-Americans in the same way it is taught to Spanish speakers, we need a more efficient approach that makes speakers of Black English more fluent in Standard English,' says Solikoko Mufwene, a linguist at the University of Chicago. Tchudi and Mitchell offer the opposing view (1989, p. 255). Theybelieve: Obligatory bi-dialectalism for minorities is only another mode of exploitation, another way of making blacks behave as whites would like them to. It is unnecessary for communication, since the ability to understand other dialects is easily attained.... In the immediate present, the time and money now wasted on bi-dialectalism should be spent on teaching the children of the minorities to read.... the direct attack on minority language, the attempt to compel bi-dialectalism, should be abandoned for an attempt to open the minds and enhance the lives of the poor and ignorant. At the same time, every attempt should be made to teach the majority to understand the life and language of the oppressed. Linguistic change is the effect and not the cause of social change. If the majority can rid itself of its prejudices, and if the minorities can get or be given an education, differences between dialects are unlikely to hurt anybody very much. The authors are advocates of social justice, and the truth of theabove is inescapable; however, the link between facility in standardEnglish, literacy, and achievement on standardized tests means that forAfrican American students, bilingualism or bidialectalism must beoffered as an immediate survival mechanism because students cannot waituntil we have a just and equitable society to prepare themselves for thedemands of the workplace. Faith Linton (2004) of the BSWI problematizes the misconceptionthat: Jamaicans must eventually choose between Creole and StandardEnglish. This idea stems from the assumption that societies mustnecessarily be monolingual mon��o��lin��gual?adj.Using or knowing only one language.mono��lin . It is presumed that there is limitedlinguistic space, and that any additional space taken up by Creolerepresents a corresponding loss of space by English. But there arecountless communities in the world where people speak two or morelanguages. Why can't Jamaica become one of them? ... The Jamaicanlanguage situation does not present us with a choice. The reality of thesituation demands that we accept its inherent potential forbilingualism, and that we move purposefully in the direction of makingour Creole-speaking children truly bilingual, equally fluent in Creoleand in Standard English. Linton (2004) mentions another factor applicable to the educationof both Jamaicans and Americans of African descent. She notes that : Jamaican schools have, unfortunately, not been following sound linguistic principles, especially at the earliest level of schooling. The early stages of education ought to be carried out in the child's Mother tongue. This is not a recent idea. Fifty-two years ago, in 1951, a statement out of UNESCO declared: 'It is an axiomatic that the best medium for teaching a child is his Mother tongue ... he learns more quickly through it ...' Above all, the child must learn to read, first, in the Mother tongue. That is the only way to achieve reading with meaning. Once the child has learnt to read (not just call words), that skill can, at the appropriate time, be transferred quickly and easily to any other language. As the Kenyan Professor of linguistics, Dr. Aloo Osotsi Mojola, said when he visited Jamaica last September, "If Jamaicans learn to read in the Mother-tongue (Patois) it will be easier for them to learn English." Schiffman (2003) concurs with the above: "Pedagogically ped��a��gog��ic? also ped��a��gog��i��caladj.1. Of, relating to, or characteristic of pedagogy.2. Characterized by pedantic formality: a haughty, pedagogic manner. , weknow that children need to develop their literacy by linking it to theirmother-tongue skills...." (p. 112). Dandy (1991) explains that banning a child's community speechfrom the classroom "can have a negative effect on classroominteraction because it reduces the spontaneity of a student'sresponses. Exciting circumstances, those heavily laden with emotion,often trigger the use of a more familiar comfortable way oftalking." She maintains that "Standard English must be taught,for it is the accepted language of the dominant culture of the UnitedStates ''This article serves as an overview of the customs and culture of the United States. For the popular culture of the United States, see arts and entertainment in the United States. and it is expected in political and economic arenas. However, ifchildren are corrected every time they open their mouths, they willbecome extremely self-conscious and reluctant to speak. Teachers need tolisten to dialect renderings so that they can understand what thechildren are doing with the language" (1991, p. 5). Macedo,Dendrinos, and Gounari (2003) concur that "all those teachers whoconsider themselves agents of change and who struggle to create a moredemocratic culture need a thorough understanding of the role of StandardEnglish--even when minority students must acquire it in order to captureits dominance and recreate it as a counter-hegemonic force. Theirstruggle needs to highlight how Standard English is used "as aweapon to silence and censor censor(sĕn`sər), title of two magistrates of ancient Rome (from c.443 B.C. to the time of Domitian). They took the census (by which they assessed taxation, voting, and military service) and supervised public behavior. " (p. 43). I agree with the researchers above and believe that it is criticalto teach African American children Standard English while affirming andencouraging their use of their own language. At the same time, however,we must not ignore the oppression of linguistic biases that cripple thelives of many in our society. Notwithstanding the critical importance of bi-dialectalism, we arereminded by Barrington Chevannes' (2000, p. 180-181) discussion oflinguistic inequality in the Caribbean that bidialectalism is notenough. Chevannes reveals another feature of the linguisticdiscrimination in his surmising sur��mise?v. sur��mised, sur��mis��ing, sur��mis��esv.tr.To infer (something) without sufficiently conclusive evidence.v.intr.To make a guess or conjecture.n. that Creole speakers who are also fluentin European languages should be considered bilingual: "However,linguists speak not of bilingualism but of code switching...."Chevannes argues that code switching indicates inequality, because,"if the languages are equal, then it matters little which is used,when. I know of no island of the region where the Creole has equalstatus." He goes on to explain that the persistence of the languageis evidence of its value." TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR BLACK SPEECH AND LANGUAGE COMMUNICATION Addressing Linguistic Inequality in the Academy My concern about the needs of future teachers and other students toreceive credible information on black speech and language communicationled me to address linguistic diversity in my diversity classes. I usethe video "American Tongues," which leads the viewer acrossthe linguistic landscape of America. I have added examination questionsthat require students to translate Black English to Standard English orthe reverse. Many students seemed unconvinced by information explainingthe role of history, culture and politics in shaping speech andlanguage, however. Even the African American students, who comprisedless than one percent of the population, in my classes believed thatonly the ignorant and unintelligent speak Black English. Concern about these issues urged me to propose the course:"Black Speech and Language Communication Behaviors" in 2002.This course is a vehicle to engage the contentious, compelling issuesaround speech in the African Diaspora. The course's goals are toinform students of the discourse, history, research on Black English,discuss the politics of language, and allow students to conduct theirown research. Some of the learning experiences include simulating speechconsultations in the corporate environment, role playing role playing,n in behavioral medicine, learning exercise in which individuals assume characters different from their own. The individual may also be asked to simulate a particularly difficult situation and apply the characteristics that are common to his and reportingon responses to their situational uses of black English, writing apolicy on Black speech and language for a school district or anotherorganization, and having their speech analyzed, among other assignments.Some students have opted to prepare videotaped projects which I can usein instructing future classes. Part of my goal in developing this courseis to provide a forum for discussion and change by engaging students andothers in the university community in reflections and conversationsabout language and power. FREEDOM OF SPEECH While arguments against learning Standard English have appeal, itis important that some members of our communities do not decide theissue for all. Individuals in the African American community and inJamaica need the opportunity to decide what is in their own bestinterests. Various forms of community speech must be encouraged andaffirmed but speakers should have the choice to learn Standard Englishand become bidialectal. Babich (1987, p. 94) suggests that we encourage children to expandtheir "repertoire of dialects." Children also should beencouraged to separate dialects from an evaluation of the personal orcultural traits of people who speak them. He explains that "gettingan appreciation for the variety of backgrounds and capacities of peoplesurrounding us is a notable goal, but no surefire techniques have beendeveloped to accomplish the objective." Burling's (1973)remarks are still true: "For many years to come ... the realitiesof our discriminatory society will persuade many older children thatthey must learn to speak standard English, and when a young persondecides for himself that he wants to gain proficiency in the prestigedialect A prestige dialect is the dialect spoken by the most prestigious people in a speech community which is large enough to sustain more than one dialect. The study of prestige in language use is an important part of sociolinguistics. , our schools owe him all the help they can give him" (p.140). Burling suggests bidialectal teachers and a concentration ongrammar as opposed to pronunciation in teaching Standard English. The politics of speech and language and language oppression areissues of equity and social justice. At times I take a list or a map offormer colonies in the African Diaspora to class as a visual to questionwhy the people, those in the Caribbean, for example, are all consideredto be speaking "bad English." I often ponder, though, how wehumans can use communication, which is something so intrinsic to humanbeings, and yet, which is so extrinsic EVIDENCE, EXTRINSIC. External evidence, or that which is not contained in the body of an agreement, contract, and the like. 2. It is a general rule that extrinsic evidence cannot be admitted to contradict, explain, vary or change the terms of a contract or of a to the value of an individual toostracize os��tra��cize?tr.v. os��tra��cized, os��tra��ciz��ing, os��tra��ciz��es1. To exclude from a group. See Synonyms at blackball.2. To banish by ostracism, as in ancient Greece. and penalize pe��nal��ize?tr.v. pe��nal��ized, pe��nal��iz��ing, pe��nal��iz��es1. To subject to a penalty, especially for infringement of a law or official regulation. See Synonyms at punish.2. others. Striving to make the world a better placeto live for all people should be prominent in addressing issuessurrounding language and dialect use. After teaching "Black Speechand Language Communication Behaviors" twice, I see the need forwidening the discussion in our society and plan to write about some ofthe work my students have produced. Hopefully this course will offerstudents and me the opportunity to open doorways of understanding tolinguistic differences and the dynamics of power and language use. Use of the language required in the corporate culture in order toearn a living is not synonymous with synonymous withadjective equivalent to, the same as, identical to, similar to, identified with, equal to, tantamount to, interchangeable with, one and the same as disregard for the politicalsignificance behind the language issue. Under girding gird?1?v. gird��ed or girt , gird��ing, girdsv.tr.1. a. To encircle with a belt or band.b. To fasten or secure (clothing, for example) with a belt or band. issues of use ofBlack English and Standard English are power relations reflectingpeoples' positions to economic and political power which cannot beignored. Inequities resulting from valuing Standard English anddenigrating Black English, Jamaican Language or other forms of AfricanDiasporic speech should be exposed and addressed, not minimized byfocusing on our efforts to survive by learning and using the dominantdialect. Rickford and Rickford (2000, p. 9) agree that African Americansmust master Standard English and add: "But we also believe thatEbonics, African American Vernacular English, Black English, Spoken Soulor whatever you want to call the informal variety spoken by many blackpeople plays an essential, valuable role in our lives and in the life ofthe larger society to which we all belong." EMBRACING OUR SPEECH, AFFIRMING OUR IDENTITY Clearly, denial of our speech identity robs us of diverse modes ofexpressions, and fails to honor who we are and to accord the value andrespect due to our particular forms of human expression. The latter isan attempt at erasure ERASURE, contracts, evidence. The obliteration of a writing; it will render it void or not under the same circumstances as an interlineation. (q.v.) Vide 5 Pet. S. C. R. 560; 11 Co. 88; 4 Cruise, Dig. 368; 13 Vin. Ab. 41; Fitzg. 207; 5 Bing. R. 183; 3 C. & P. 65; 2 Wend. R. 555; 11 Conn. of people's distinctiveness that strikes ablow at their humanity. Without our language forms the dynamism, theverve would be missing and we would be separated by unfamiliar soundsand words that fail to embrace us with the oneness we feel when we bothspeak the same dynamic speech. There is something wonderful about beingyourself and honoring the positive traditions of your culture. Having tobe someone else to be accepted signifies rejection and speech andidentity are bundled/knotted together. Finally, fervent advocacy is needed to inform as well as toengender change on this issue. In order to achieve change it isimperative that, first, the harmful internal and external stigmatizingof the speech of the African Diaspora must end. Secondly, we thespeakers of languages and dialects deemed inferior must examine how andwhy we view our speech and language as we do. Thirdly, we must offer ourstudents the tools they need to be competent in Standard English.Finally, we must advocate for linguistic equality among allcommunication systems and teach students why we have differentlanguages. Conversation with at least one former college administratorrevealed that some institutions of higher learning believe that whetherto teach speakers of black English Standard English or not, or even howto do so is a controversial potentially inflammatory issue, andtherefore the subject is ignored. Consequently, students are beingineffectively prepared for their lives in a stratified stratified/strat��i��fied/ (strat��i-fid) formed or arranged in layers. strat��i��fiedadj.Arranged in the form of layers or strata. society. The following example prepares me for the times I hear my mothertell of how cousin Byron tried to "learn" her to ride abicycle." Although my sensibilities alert me that in otherenvironments this construction would attract negative attention. Iunderstand her and everyone else around us does as well. I focus onenjoying the reminiscences, seeing the images described and celebrateour history preserved in such constructions: "The toad, having finished his breakfast, picked up a stoutstick and swung it vigorously, belaboring imaginary animals."I'll learn 'em to steam my house!" he cried.I'll learn em. I'll learn em." Don't say 'learn 'em," Toad" said the Rat,greatly shocked. "It's not good English." "What are you always nagging at Toad for?" inquired theBadger rather peevishly pee��vish?adj.1. a. Querulous or discontented.b. Ill-tempered.2. Contrary; fractious.[Middle English pevish, possibly from Latin . "What's the matter with his English?It's the same what I use myself, and if it's good enough forme, it ought to be good enough for you!" "I'm very sorry," said the Rat humbly. "I onlythink it ought to be 'teach em,' not learn 'em." But we don't want to teach 'em," replied the Badger."We want to learn 'em--learn 'em learn em! 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Tchudi, S.& Mitchell, D. (1989). Explorations in the Teachingof English. N.Y.: Harper Collins Publishers. Tucker, C. (1999). African American Children: A self-empowermentapproach to modifying behavior problems and preventing academic failure.Allyn & Bacon: Needham Heights, MA. Van Keulen, Jean E. et. al (1998). Speech. Language, Learning, andthe African American Child. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Winford, D. (2003). Black Linguistics: Language, Society, andPolitics in Africa and the Americas" In . Black Linguistics:Language, society, and politics in Africa and the Americas. Ed. ByMakoni, S. et al. Canada: Routledge. Audrey P. Watkins Western Illinois University For another university which uses the abbreviation "WIU", see Webber International UniversityAthleticsMain article: Western Illinois Leathernecks Department of African American Studies Macomb, Illinois Macomb is a city located in McDonough County, Illinois founded in 1831. It is situated in western Illinois southwest of Galesburg at 40��27'38" North, 90��40'27" West (40.460501, -90.674048).GR1 As of 2000, the city had a population of 18,558. 61455